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MEDICAL 


GIFT  OF  THE 

SAN  FRANCISCO  COUNTY 

MEDICAL  SOCIETY 


EEPOET 


ON       THB 


IMPORTANCE  AND  ECONOMY 


to 


BY    JOHN   \BELL,    M.D., 


OF     PHILADELPHIA. 


BOARD    OF 

November    28,     1859. 


DOCUMENT  JTo.   2O. 


I860 

NEW     YOKK: 

EDMUND    JONES    &    CO   ,    PRINTERS    TO    BOARD    OF    COUNCILMEN, 

No.     26     JOH\     STKKKT. 

I860. 


01 

NOVEMBER 


128,  1859.   j 


The  following  report,  on  the  Internal  Higiene  of  Cities,  was 
received,  laid  over,  and  subsequently  adopted,  November  28, 
1859,  and  ordered  printed  in  document  form. 

C.  T.  McCLENACHAN, 

Clerk. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 


Ancient  Egyptian  Hygiene,     .         .         .<....         .  6 

Carthaginian  Hygiene,             .  g 

Public  Hygiene  of  Ancient  Borne,             ...  7 

The  Cloacae, 

•  o 

Pestilential  Fevers, 10 

The  Aqueducts,    .....  n 

Agrippa,       .         .         .         .         .         .         .  .         ;  |      f        13 

Barbarism  and  Civilization,     ....  15 

Causes  of  Pestilence,       .  20 

Venice,         .'        ....-'" 22 

Amsterdam,          ....  23 

St.  Petersburgh,    ....  25 

Neglect  of  Sanitary  Legislation,       ....  27 

Community  of  Interests,          .         .         .         •  82 

Paving,          ••.....  34 

Cleansing  of  Streets,      '.....  37 

Economy  of  Street  Cleaning,            .  37 

Sewered  and  Unsewered  Districts  compared,     .  38 
Sewerage  and  Sewer  Gases,      .. 

The  Remedy  for  the  Sewer  Miasms,           ...  57 
System  of  Sewers, 

Disposal  of  Sewage, 

Ventilation, 

/.  :    .         .        79 

Defective  Ventilation— Crowded  Streets  and  Habitations,  .        81 

Predilection  of  Cholera  for  Old  Haunts  of  Disease,         .  91 

Public  Lodging-Houses,         ....  93 

General  Want  of  Ventilation,         ...  94 

In  Schools, 

•  »         •         .        yy 

In  Hospitals,     .    ,     ,         ,         »        -.  100 

In  Work-Shops  and  Factories,       %         .  102 
Seamstresses, 

•  •  •  «        iUo 


72329 


CONTENTS. 

PACK. 

Printing-offices 103 

Pulmonary  Diseases  from  Defective  Ventilation,            .  104 

Defect  of  Light,   .    ...         .         .      ''*.•*..  .         .         .    .     .'•         .  104 

The  Kemedies,      ...         .   N     .         .      '  .         ....        .         .  107 

Model  Houses,     .         .          .       :.         .'       f;^:\          .          .  110 

Model  Lodging-Houses,         .          .          .          .          ...  Ill 

Means  of  Ventilation, 112 

Different  Modes,           .         .          .         .         .         .         .         .  114 

Chemical  Ventilation,           .         .         .         .         .         ...  121 

Ventilation  of  Schools, ,127 

Ventilation  of  Hospitals, 128 

Factory  Ventilation,    .                             .....  132 

Ventilation  of  Sewers, 134 

Supply  of  Water,           .                   ,  135 

"Water  in  Leaden  Cisterns  and  Pipes,     '.          .         .         .         .  138 

Effects  of  Bad  Water  for  Drink,     .......  139 

Intemperance,       .         .         .         .         ...         .         .         .         .  146 

Preventable  Diseases  and  Mortality,        .          .          .          .         .  150 

Sanitary  Improvements,        ....         .         .         .         .  160 

Pulmonary  and  Cutaneous  Purification,           .....  164 

Public  Squares  and  Parks,             ......  165 

V 

Gymnasia  and  Museums,      .......  166 

Ablution  and  Bathing,           .         .         .         .         ...         .  167 

Public  Wash-Houses,  170 

Nuisances,   .         .....         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  171 

Slaughter-Houses,        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  174 

Cow-Houses, 177 

Interments  in  Cities, .  180 


REPORT. 


This  is  one  of  the  subjects  to  which  the  Committee  on 
the  Internal  Hygiene  of  Cities  has  been  specially  instruct- 
ed to  direct  its  attention.  It  is  that  on  which,  in  the  divi- 
sion of  labor,  I  am  required  to  be  the  reporter.  The  mate- 
rials for  the  purpose  are  ample,  and  it  only  requires  the 
labor  of  selection  and  arrangement  to  make  them  available 
for  immediate  instruction  and  guidance  in  the  work  of  sani- 
tary reform.  History,  notwithstanding  its  imperfect  no- 
tices of  the  real  condition  of  the  people  of  the  different 
countries  whose  progress  it  professes  to  narrate,  furnishes, 
when  read  and  studied  in  a  proper  sense,  large  contribu- 
tions More  especially  is  this  true  with  regard  to  contem- 
porary records,  which,  while  they  manifest  awakened  at- 
tention to  existing  evils,  point  out  at  the  same  time  the 
means  of  amelioration  and  improvement.  In  the  use  to  be 
made  of  the  knowledge  obtainable  from  so  many  sources, 
and  to  be  brought  to  bear  in  aid  of  sanitary  reform,  it  will 
be  safer  to  incur  the  charge  of  iteration  rather  than  of  fail- 
ure to  impress  the  public  mind  with  the  vast  importance 
of  the  questions  involved  in  the  discussion,  and  with  the 
pertinency  and  force  of  the  facts  adduced  in  elucidation  of 
principles.  We  must  not  imagine  that  a  knowledge  of 
sanitary  matters,  possessed  by  a  small  number  of  intelligent 
and  inquiring  minds,  is  at  all  indicative  either  of  the 
knowledge  or  the  zeal  of  the  public  at  large.  Our  reform, 
like  every  other  that  has  been  successful,  requires  itera- 
tion, and  again  iteration.  / 

Ancient  Egyptian  Hygiene. — The  mere  mention  of  ancient 
Egypt  suggests  to  the  minds  of  all  readers  her  pyramids  and 
obelisks,  with  their  hieroglyphics,  the  splendor  of  Thebes  and 


6 

Memphis,  the  superstitious  observances  of  her  people  in 
their  alleged  worship  of  animals,  and  of  their  embalming  the 
dead,  both  of  their  own  and  the  brute  kind.  The  annually- 
overflowing  and  fertilizing  Nile,  with  its  innumerable  canals 
for  irrigation,  is  also  a  theme  for  admiration.  But  the 
wise  sanitary  measures  which  secured  health  to  the  inhabit- 
ants, and  their  protection  from  pestilence,  by  a  system  of 
irrigation  and  methodical  distribution  of  the  waters  of  the 
great  river,  and  the  practice  of  embalming  the  dead,  under 
religious  sanction,  are  scarcely  deemed  to  be  worthy  of 
notice  by  the  historian;  certainly  they  are  not  impressed 
on  the  minds  of  the  youthful  student  in  such  a  manner 
as  is  called  for,  both  by  the  importance  of  the  facts  them- 
selves, and  as  suggestive  of  theduty  of  a  government  to 
exercise  unceasing  vigilance  in  all  matters  that  relate  to 
public  hygiene.  Unless  the  process  of  converting  the  dead 
bodies,  not  only  of  men  but  of  animals  also,  into  mum- 
mies, had  been  in  a  great  measure  universal,  it  would  have 
been  difficult  to  prevent  putrefactive  exhalations  from  con- 
tinually filling  and  poisoning  the  air,  owing  to  the  difficulty, 
not  to  say  impossibility,  of  securing  deep  and  permanent  burial 
for  the  dead  in  a  land  like  that  of  Egypt,  the  soil  of  which  is 
undergoing  continual  changes  of  surface  by  the  annual  overflow 
and  washing  of  the  Nile.  With  a  similarly  wise  provision  of 
means  best  calculated  to  preserve  the  public  health,  one,  if  not 
more  of  the  ancient  kings,  made  those  great  artificial  excava- 
tions, the  lakes  of  Mceris,  the  effect  of  which  was  protection 
against  the  impetuous  flow  of  the  Nile  at  its  rise,  or  the  too 
persistent  delay  of  its  waters  at  its  fall ;  and,  in  either  case, 
to  diminish,  if  not  entirely  prevent,  an  exposed  marshy  surface 
with  its  deleterious  exhalations. 

Carthaginian  Hygiene. — We  are  all  familiar  with  the 
memorable  incidents  of  the  wars  growing  out  of  the  rivalry 
between  the  Homans  and  the  Carthaginians ;  but  few  are 


aware  that  paving  the  streets  was  first  practised  in  Car- 
thage, and  that  the  example  was  followed  by  the  Romans, 
or  that  a  copious  supply  of  water  for  the  use  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  that  city,  was  brought,  after  immense  labor  and  ex- 
pense, by  an  aqueduct  more  than  fifty  miles  in  length,  and 
of  such  dimensions  that  a  man  could  stand  erect  in  it.  The 
cisterns  for  the  reception  and  distribution  of  the  water 
through  the  city  were  of  corresponding  magnitude ;  and  even 
now  in  rowing  along  the  beach,  the  mouths  of  common 
sewers  are  frequently  discovered.  In  a  like  spirit  of  regard 
for  the  public  health,  the  Carthaginians  set  apart  ground  for  a 
public  cemetery,  beyond  the  suburbs  of  the  city,  which  became 
a  true  Necropolis,  a  city  of  the  dead,  of  which  notice  will  be 
taken  when  we  come  to  treat  of  the  evils  of  intramural  inter- 
ments. 

Public  Hygiene  of  Ancient  Rome. — Favorable  as 
the  site  of  ancient  Eome,  extending  over  her  seven  hills, 
might  at  first  appear  for  early  habitation  and  defense,  it 
may  be  safely  said  that  we  should  never  have  heard  of 
the  eternal  city,  never  would  she  have  become  mistress  of 
the  world,  if  her  rulers  and  people  had  not  early  felt  the 
importance  of  sanitary  measures,  and  carried  them  out  with 
a  persistence  and  an  ability  which  should  serve  as  models 
for  all  succeeding  ages.  Much  of  the  ground  between  the  hills 
was  little  better  than  a  swamp,  owing  to  the  trickling  down  of 
the  small  springs  from  above,  and  to  the  frequent  overflowing 
of  the  Tiber.  Unless,  therefore,  the  ground  could  have  been 
thoroughly  drained,  it  must  have  remained,  in  a  great  measure, 
uninhabitable ;  and  the  seven  hills  would  have  continued  to 
be  the  seat  of  merely  so  many  separate  villages,  the  abode  and 
refuge  of  a  half-shepherd,  half-robber  population,  who  had  the 
Capitoline  hill  for  their  citadel ,  and  Eome  would  have  barely 
acquired  the  rank  of  an  inferior  Latin  city,  under  the  rule  of 
her  neighbor  and  subsequent  nval  Alba  Longa. 


8 

The  CloacoB. — With  not  only  an  intentness  to  meet  existing 
wants,  but  with  apparently  a  prescience  of  the  future  greatness 
and  dominion  of  Rome,  the  work  of  drainage  and  sewerage  was 
begun  by  her  kings  and  continued  during  the  republic  on  a 
scale  of  such  magnitude,  and  in  a  manner  so  enduring,  as  to 
be  unsurpassed  and  rarely  equaled  by  any  subsequent  labor 
of  the  same  kind  in  other  countries.  The  Cloaca  Maxima 
which  carried  off  the  waters  of  the  Veldbrum,  at  the  time  a 
marsh  between  the  Tiber  in  one  direction,  and  the  Capitoline, 
Palatine,  and  Aventine  hills  in  another,  rivals  the  largest '  of 
the  pyramids  in  solidity  and  amount  of  material,  arid  exceeds 
them  all  in  unquestionable  utility.  The  inner  diameter  of  this 
river-like  trimural  sewer  was  more  than  thirteen  feet,  and 
such  as  to  allow  it  to  receive  other  large  affluxes.  "Earth- 
quakes, the  pressure  of  buildings,  the  neglect  of  fifteen  hun- 
dred years,  have  not,"  writes  Niebuhr,  "moved  a  stone  out 
of  its  place ;  and  for  ten  thousand  years  to  come,  these  vaults 
will  stand  uninjured  as  at  this  day."  The  Minor  Velabrum 
was  continuous  with  the  marshy  districts,  known  afterwards 
as  the  Forum  and  the  Suburra,  which  were  drained  by  appro- 
priate tunnels  opening  into  the  main  trunk.  In  the  centre  of 
the  Minor  Velabnim  was  a  bog  or  swamp  called  lake  Curtius, 
which  was  long  an  unabated  and  unmanageable  nuisance. 
The  myth  of  Marcus  Curtius  sacrificing  himself  for  the  good 
of  his  country,  by  plunging,  mounted  and  armed,  into  this 
yawning  abyss,  which  was  henceforth  closed  forever,  would, 
if  clothed  in  the  language  of  sober  reality,  probably  read  as 
follows,  in  the  style  of  an  obituary  notice:  "  Marcus  Curtius, 
edile,  while  superintending  day  after  day,  the  drainage  and 
filling  up  of  the  unsightly  and  insalubrious  Minor  Velabrum, 
and  being  exposed  all  the  time  to  the  fervid  rays  of  an 
autumnal  sun,  contracted  a  pestilential  fever,  under  which  he 
sank,  a  martyr  to  his  love  for  Rome,  to  whose  welfare  he  gave 
his  life  as  a  sacrifice.  Peace  to  his  manes !  Eternal  honor 
to  his  memory." 


9 

All  these  reclaimed  marshes  became  memorable  in  the  his- 
tory of  Rome,  as  sites  for  many  of  her  most  useful  and  orna- 
mental buildings  and  streets.  In  the  Velabrum  were  con- 
structed the  cattle  and  fish  markets,  Forum,  Boarium  and 
Forum  Piscatorium,  the  temples  of  Fortune  and  Vesta,  the 
Arcus  Quadrifrons  and  the  Circus  3faximus.  The  Forum^ 
long  known  by  that  simple  designation,  and  afterwards  called 
Forum  Romanum,  was  a  place  for  public  meetings,  and  also 
a  market-place ;  it  was  surrounded  by  buildings  of  various 
descriptions,  both  useful  and  ornamental ;  shops,  arcades, 
columns,  triumphal  arches,  and  temples.  This  is  not  the  time 
to  speak  of  the  historical  associations  of  the  Roman  Forum, 
where  the  Comitia  were  held,  where  Cicero  harangued,  and 
where  the  triumphal  processions  passed.  The  once  remote 
and  marshy  suburban  village,  the  Suburra,  became  after  its 
drainage  and  the  desiccation  of  the  soil,  the  site  of  the  amphi- 
theatre of  Titus  Vespasian,  more  •  generally  known  as  the 
Coliseum,  and  the  triumphal  arch  of  Titus. 

But,  notwithstanding  all  the  pains  and  expense  lavished  on 
the  vast  subterranean  drains  (cloacce),  it  was  always  a  matter 
of  extreme  difficulty  to  keep  the  ground  of  the  Velabrum  and 
the  Suburra  sufficiently  dry  to  be  healthy  ;  and  hence  these 
quarters  were  the  residence  of  the  plebs  or  commonalty.  Julius 
Csesar,  in  the  early  part  of  his  career,  occupied  an  humble 
house  in  the  Suburra.  Of  a  similar  marshy  nature  was  the 
plain  lying  between  the  Tiber  and  the  Pincian,  Quirinal,  and 
Capitoline  hills,  on  which  a  good  part  of  modern  Rome  has 
been  built.  Part  of  this  plain,  in  an  early  period  of  ancient 
Rome,  was  cleared  of  trees,  and  made  a  field  for  gymnastic 
exercises  and  feats  of  mimic  war  (Campus  Jlfartius).  Large 
groves  were,  however,  retained,  among  which  Augustus 
erected  the  Mausoleum  called  after  him  ;  and  behind  it  beau- 
tiful walks  were  laid  out.  Another  part  of  the  plain  was 
covered  wiih,  innumerable  palaces,  wooded  gardens,  three 


10 

theatres,  an  amphitheatre,  and  magnificent  temples,  con- 
tiguous one  to  another.  To  have  drained  this  district,  as  a 
necessary  preliminary  for  such  various  and  splendid  construc- 
tions, must  have  been  a  work  of  considerable  labor  and  time, 
as  we  have  an  opportunity  of  learning  from  the  experimental 
observations  of  an  eminent  Italian  savant  (Brocchi).  He 
shows  that,  at  any  spot  over  the  whole  plain,  water  is  readily 
procured  at  the  depth  of  a  few  feet  from  the  surface,  and  in 
such  quantity  as  to  furnish,  were  it  necessary,  an  adequate 
supply  to  the  whole  city,  by  means  of  wells,  and  without  hav- 
ing recourse  to  the  aqueducts.  With  a  knowledge  of  the 
buildings  which  bordered  the  Campus  Martius  on  three  sides, 
and  the  still  more  numerous  and  imposing  ones  in  the  Forum 
and  the  Suburra,  previously  noticed,  we  see  the  necessity  for 
completing  the  simple  yet  extensive  underground  construc- 
tions in  the  way  of  sewers,  before  a  firm  foundation  could  be 
procured  for  the  more  various,  massive,  lofty,  and  ornamental 
edifices  erected  on  the  surface.  The  lesson  is  a  fruitful  one, 
and  ought  never  to  be  lost  sight  of  in  the  founding  and  laying 
out  of  new  towns.  In  many  of  these  a  proper  system  of 
drainage  arid  sewerage  is  an  after-thought,  and  hence  when 
executed,  it  is  at  an  immense  cost,  and  often  after  much  sick- 
ness, suffering,  and  mortality  among  the  first  inhabitants. 

Pestilential  Fevers. — Paving,  the  necessary  accompaniment 
of  sewerage,  and  without  which  the  latter  must  always  be  im- 
perfect, was  not  begun  in  E-ome  until  an  advanced  period  of  the 
republic,  when  the  practice  was  said  to  have  been  adopted  from 
the  example  of  the  Carthaginians.  The  early  deficiency  in  this 
respect,  and  the  inadequate  supply  of  water  for  washing  out 
the  sewers,  allowed  of  the  extrication  and  escape  of  effluvia, 
which,  added  to  the  exhalations  from  an  exposed  and  wet 
surface,  still  in  part  subjected  to  overflow  of  the  Tiber,  gave 
rise  to  those  epidemic  and  aggravated  periodical  fevers,  which 


11 

under  the  vague  name  of  plague  (pestis)  ravaged  the  city  and 
the  Ager  Romanus,  now  the  Campagna  di  Roma,  at  dif- 
ferent times,  and  carried  off  large  numbers  of  their  inhabitants. 
The  state  of  war  in  which  the  Romans  were,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  short  intervals,  so  constantly  engaged,  must  have  com- 
plicated the  features  and  augmented  the  violence  and  fatality 
of  these  pestilences.  Without  professing  to  have  made  anti- 
quarian or  much  historical  research,  it  seems  to  us  that  these 
visitations  were  not  so  destructive  in  the  latter  years  of  the 
republic,  and  under  the  first  emperors,  notwithstanding  the 
greatly  increased  population  of  the  city,  as  they  had  been 
under  the  kings  and  in  the  first  centuries  of  the  republic. 
The  difference  in  these  respects  must  be  traced  to  the  extended 
system  of  paving  and  of  sewerage,  and  the  abundant  supply 
of  water  brought  by  the  aqueducts.  Brennus  at  the  head  of 
his  victorious  Gauls,  after  having  held  possession  of  the  city 
for  six  or  seven  months,  during  which  period  he  laid  close 
siege  to  the  Capitoline  hill,  on  whose  summit  the  surviving 
citizens  had  taken  their  last  stand,  was  finally  obliged  to 
retire,  owing  to  the  sickness  that  destroyed  so  many  of  his 
soldiers,  much  more  than  to  the  gold  with  which  it  was  said 
he  was  bought  off.  The  Grauls  encamped  around  the  Capito- 
line hill,  in  the  Forum  and  the  region  of  the  Yelabrum,  were 
unavoidably  exposed  to  the  causes  of  fever  growing  out  of  this 
low  and  unhealthy  situation,  acted  on  by  the  fervid  rays  of  a 
summer  and  autumnal  sun.  Reference  has  been  already 
made  to  the  ground  in  this  region  being  sometimes  overflowed 
by  the  Tiber ;  and  we  may  now  add,  that,  even  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Augustus,  it  was,  on  such  occasions,  impossible  to 
pass  from  the  Palatine  to  the  Aventine  mount  without  the  aid 
of  a  boat,  for  which  each  passenger  paid  a  quadrans,  or 
about  a  cent  of  our  money. 

The  Aqueducts. — On  an  equally  large  and  magnificent 
scale  with  the   subterranean  conduits  and  galleries  for  the 


12 


purpose  of  sewerage,  were  the  numerous  aqueducts  which 
traversed  Rome  ill  all  directions.  They  were  nine  in  number, 
and  conveyed  into  the  city,  at  distances  varying  from  seven 
to  sixty  miles,  a  supply  of  water  adequate  for  both  public 
and  private  uses — cleansing  the  cloaques,  supplying  the 
numerous  baths,  and  naumachise,  and  the  houses  for  all 
domestic  purposes.  One  of  these  aqueducts,  the  Martian, 
conveyed  the  waters  of  three  separate  streams  in  as  many  chan- 
nels. The  first  aqueduct,  made  in  the  fifth  century  from  the 
foundation  of  Rome,  was  almost  entirely  subterranean.  In 
such  cases,  openings  to  the  external  air  were  made  at  inter- 
vals of  241  feet,  for  the  purposes  of  ventilation.  With  the 
growth  of*  the  city,  and  the  extension  and  multiplication  of 
the  sewers,  it  became  more  than  ever  an  object  to  keep  these 
underground  passages  free  from  obstructions,  and  hence 
whether  Rome  was  at  war  or  at  peace  with  the  neighboring 
states,  the  government,  both  in  the  time  of  the  republic  and 
in  that  of  the  empire,  exercised  unceasing  vigilance,  not  only 
in  these  important  matters,  but  in  every  thing  that  bore  rela- 
tion to  the  public  health.  The  comprehensive  jurisdiction  of 
the  ediles  indicated  the  supervision,  as  well  of  public  build- 
ings— temples,  theatres,  &c. — as  of  private  edifices,  to  such 
an  extent  that  they  should  neither  endanger  nor  incommode 
passengers  on  the  streets,  but  also  of  baths,  aqueducts,  com- 
mon sewers,  and  control  of  the  markets  and  houses  of 
public  resort — taverns  and  hotels,  as  we  should  call  them  at 
the  present  day.  The  ediles  took  care  that  the  health  of  the 
people  should  not  suffer  by  bad  provisions,  which  they  threw 
into  the  Tiber,  nor  their  morals  by  bad  women,  whom  they 
had  authority  to  banish  from  the  city.  Officers  were  also 
specially  appointed  to  take  care  of  the  aqueducts.  These 
Cur  at  ores  Aquarum  were  invested  with  considerable  author- 
ity ;  being  attended,  when  they  went  out  of  the  city,  by  an 
architect,  secretaries,  two  lictors,  three  public  slaves,  &c. 


13 

After  reading  the  account  given  by  Strabo  of  the  quantity 
of  water  introduced  into  the  city  being  so  great  that  whole 
rivers  seemed  to  flow  through  the  streets  and  sewers,  what  a 
contrast  is  offered  to  our  minds  when  we  turn  over  the  pages 
of  the  Parliamentary  reports  made  a  few  years  ago,  showing 
the  lamentable  deficiency  in  this  respect  both  in  London  and 
many  of  the  great  and  even  small  towns  of  England.  To 
such  an  extent  did  this  prevail,  that  hundreds  of  thousands 
were  deprived  not  only  of  an  adequate  supply  for  washing 
their  clothes,  and  for  purposes  of  personal  cleanliness,  but 
also  for  drink  itself.  The  only  fountains  to  which  they 
had  access  were  those  of  liquid  poison ;  the  only  edifices 
to  rejoice  their  eyes,  and  to  which  they  might  claim 
entrance,  by  spending  the  pittance  earned  by  their  daily 
toil,  were  gin-palaces.  In  most  of  our  cities  on  this  side  of 
the  Atlantic,  provision  has  been  made  for  an  abundant  supply 
of  water  for  the  use  of  their  inhabitants ;  and  our  municipal 
authorities  might,  with  propriety,  repeat  the  language  of 
Augustus,  who,  in  reply  to  a  popular  clamor  about  the  dear- 
ness  and  scarcity  of  wine,  reminded  the  people  of  Rome,  "that 
no  man  could  reasonably  complain  of  thirst,  since  the  aque- 
ducts of  Agrippa  had  introduced  into  the  city  so  many  copious 
streams  of  pure  and  salubrious  water."  There  is  reason  to 
fear  that  this  appeal  in  favor  of  the  unsophisticated  appetite 
for  water,  as  contrasted  with  the  acquired  relish  for  alcoholic 
stimulants,  would  be  received  with  as  little  favor  in  the 
Christian  capitals  of  Europe  and  America,  as  it  was  in 
pagan  Rome. 

Agrippa. — There  is  no  name  in  Roman  history  and  records 
so  eminent  for  his  numerous  and  extensive  additions  to  the  chief 
means  of  promoting  the  health,  as  Agrippa,  the  son-in-law  and 
most  trusted  counselor  of  Augustus.  He  increased  the  number 
of  the  public  sewers,  and  exercised  a  continual  and  careful  super- 


14 

vision  over  all  of  them.  So  numerous  were  these  subterranean 
galleries,  that  the  entire  city  might  be  said,  in  the  language 
afterwards  used  by  Pliny,  to  be  suspended  over  innumerable 
arches  (urbs  pensilis).  Agrippa  contrived,  in  addition  to  other 
means,  to  collect  several  minor  streams  into  a  larger  one,  and 
to  divert  the  entire  current  into  the  sewers,  so  as,  in  a 
measure,  to  flush  them,  as  we  would  say  nowadays,  and 
thus  to  drive  before  it  all  refuse  and  fetid  accumulations.  He 
carried  his  supervision  so  far  as  to  see  in  person  to  the  clean- 
ing out  of  the  sewers,  for  which  purpose  he  used  to  enter 
some  of  them  in  a  boat.  .  The  civil  authorities  of  Rome  dis- 
played continued  watchfulness,  in  order  to  prevent  the  waste  of 
water  brought  by  the  aqueducts  ;  and,  among  other  laws  to 
this  effect,  there  was  one  which  prohibited  the  diverting  of  the 
water,  that  flowed  over  the  castella  or  reservoirs  at  the  ter- 
mination of  the  aqueducts,  to  private  purposes,  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  health  of  the  city,  by  thus  preventing  the  washing 
out  of  the  sewers.  By  the  like  attention  to  drainage  and  cul- 
tivation of  suburban  districts,  and  indeed  of  all  Latium,  the 
country  was  rendered  in  a  great  measure  healthy,  and  became 
the  favorite  retreat  of  the  wealthy  Romans  during  the  hot 
season.  These  delightful  villas  could  not,  even  if  they  were 
yet  entire,  be  now  inhabited,  on  account  of  the  altered  condi- 
tion of  the  soil,  and  its  alleged  consequent  extrication  of  the 
pervading  and  destructive  malaria. 

Following  the  construction  of  the  aqueducts,  and  the  intro- 
duction of  so  great  a  body  of  water  as  was  conveyed  by  them 
into  Rome,  was  that  of  the  Public  Baths,  some  of  which,  as 
those  of  Diocletian,  were  almost  small  towns,  comprising,  as 
they  did,  every  kind  of  structure  for  bodily  exercise,  religious 
worship,  reading,  and  recreation,  in  addition  to  the  vast 
lavacra,  and  other  appliances  for  bathing  in  water,  vapor,  or 
hot  air,  as  taste  or  the  bodily  health  might  require.  Some 
reference  will  again  be  made  to  these  establishments,  towards 
the  close  of  this  report. 


15 

Barbarism  and   Civilisation. — History  tells  us  of  the 
immense  population  of  ancient  Rome  at  the  height  of  her 
power,   and   the    villas   which   overspread   the    surrounding 
country ;  both  town  and  country  preserving  and  maintain- 
ing a  vigorous   and  unremitting  observance    of   the    laws 
enacted  for  the  public  health.     From  the  same  source  we 
learn  the  melancholy  and  contrasted  picture  of  Rome,  fallen, 
depopulated,  and  rendered  almost  desolate  by  her  barbarian 
invaders,  and  the  consequent  entire  neglect  of  all  sanitary 
legislation.     Such  was  the  wide-spread  ruin  which  followed 
the  repeated  irruptions  of  barbarian  conquerors  and  despoilers, 
Goths,  Huns,  Vandals,  and  Lombards,  that,  in  the  eighth 
century,  as  we  read  in  the  pages  of  the  learned  and  accurate 
Muratori,  a  considerable  part  of  Italy  was  covered  with  forests 
and  marshes  of  great  extent,  and  infested  with  wolves  and 
other  wild  beasts.     The  same  state  of  desolation  prevailed  in 
other  countries  of  Europe.     Rome  herself,  fallen  from  her 
high  estate,  exhibited  the  melancholy  spectacle  of  a  great  city 
in  ruins  ;  the  adjacent  country  a  gloomy  solitude,  and  disease 
reigning  supreme  over  the  surviving  inhabitants.     Plundered 
first  by  Alaric,  and  spared  by  the  ferocious  Attila,  who  had 
laid  waste  the  whole  empire,  her  greatest   sufferings  were 
caused  by  Totila,  who  besieged  Rome,  and  cut  the  aqueducts, 
in  order  to  facilitate  the  capture  of  the  city.     By  this  means 
the  country  around  was  overflowed,  ponds   and  quagmires 
were  formed,  and  the  air  became  in  consequence  poisoned. 
The  Lombards  exceeded,  if  possible,  those  who  had  gone 
before  them  in  the  work  of  destruction,  in  which  we  must 
include  that  of  drains,  dikes,  and  sewers.     Even  if  these  had 
not  been  destroyed  or  closed  up  by  foreign  enemies,  there 
were  not  inhabitants  left  in  sufficient  number  to  keep  them 
entire  and  to  cleanse  them.     With  progressive  barbarism  and 
decay  of  all  the  useful  arts,  a  knowledge  of  the  very  exist- 
ence, and,  consequently,  of  the  direction  of  most  of  the  sewers, 


16 


was  lost.  There  was  no  longer  any  police,  nor  tne  commonest 
attention  to  public  hygiene.  Frequent  references  were  made, 
in  successive  centuries  of  the  dark  or  middle  ages,  to  the 
stagnant 'waters  in  the  vicinity  of  Rome,  and  their  retention 
in  the  vaults  and  the  ruined  buildings  of  the  city,  as  a  con- 
stant cause  of  taint  of  the  incumbent  air.  During  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  few  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Rome  reached  the  fortieth  year  of  life,  and  a  very  small 
number  survived  the  sixtieth  year.  On  the  advance  of  the 
Emperor  Frederic  Barbarossa  on  Rome,  it  was  asserted  by  a 
writer  at  the  time,  that  its  pestilential  air  offered  a  better 
means  than  its  soldiers,  of  protection  to  the  city  against  an 
enemy.  When  the  Popes  returned  to  Rome,  after  an  absence 
of  seventy  years  (1306  to  1376)  in  Avignon,  the  city  only 
contained  thirty  thousand  inhabitants.  This  return  became 
the  sigAal  for  setting  about  the  work  of  restoration  and  im- 
provement, and  among  the  measures  of  this  nature  most  con- 
tributive  to  the  public  health,  was  the  construction  of  new  and 
the  repairing  and  opening  some  of  the  old  sewers.  Noticeable 
evidences  of  improvement  in  the  sanitary  condition  of  Rome, 
effected  by  drainage,  were  presented  in  the  changes  wrought 
in  the  quarter  of  the  Vatican,  and  in  that  corresponding  with 
the  ancient  Campus  Martius.  The  first,  in  the  time  of  Tacitus, 
was  eminently  unhealthy,  owing  to  the  marshy  nature  of  the 
ground ;  but  it  was  so  much  improved  in  this  particular  by 
the  Popes,  as  to  be  made  the  site  for  the  Church  of  St.  Peter 
and  the  Palace  of  the  Vatican.  In  fact,  many  of  the  largest 
churches  and  finest  palaces  in  modern  Rome  are  so  many 
evidences  of  conquests  over  marshy  ground,  in  order  to  give 
space  and  stable  foundation  for  their  erection,  and  also,  to 
render  access  and  occupation  easy  and  safe.  Modern  Rome, 
through  the  Popes,  has  in  part  imitated  and  in  part  turned  to 
direct  account  the  construction  of  the  ancient  aqueducts,  so 
that  by  means  of  three  of  these  art-directed  rivers,  the  city  is 


17 

amply  supplied  with  water,  not  only  for  the  domestic  and  per- 
sonal wants  of  the  inhabitants,  but  for  the  purposes  of  cleans- 
ing the  streets  and  supplying  numerous  fountains.  The 
gushing  streams  and  jets  sent  out  from  these  last,  diffuse,  a 
grateful  coolness  through  the  surrounding  air,  during  the  rag- 
ing and  oppressive  heats  of  summer.  The  most  rigid  Protest- 
ant, in  going  the  rounds  of  sight-seeing  during  the  dog-days, 
must  feel  his  odium  theologicum  oozing  out  at  every  pore  as 
he  approaches  the  magnificent  fountains  of  Termini,  of  Trevi, 
and  of  the  Piazza  N^avone,  formerly  the  Circus  Agonalis, 
or  sees  a  river  foaming  like  a  cataract  at  the  Pauline. 

The  calamities  which  followed  the  irruption  of  the  German 
and  Scythian  nations  into  the  Roman  empire,  lasted  for  four 
centuries ;  and  during  this  period  it  were  vain  to  talk  of  public 
hygiene.  No  longer  were  ediles  and  questors  to  be  found, 
nor  were  similar  officers  created  by  the  barbarian  conquerors. 
Even  after  the  outlines  of  a  new  order  of  things  were  visible, 
and  modern  history  began  its  records,  a  long  time  elapsed 
before  any  pains  whatever  were  taken  to  preserve  the  health 
of  communities  by  sanitary  regulations.  The  cultivators  of 
the  soil,  herding  rather  than  dwelling  together  round  the 
castle  of  their  lord  and  tyrant,  were  badly  fed  and  worse 
lodged  ;  and  both  in  town  and  country  the  purifying  aid  of 
the  bath  ceased  to  be  sought  for,  and  in  fact  was  no  longer 
procurable.  The  first  memorable  step  towards  a  better  social 
and  political  organization  of  the  people  who  overran  and  sub- 
jugated the  Roman  empire,  was  their  collection  into  commer- 
cial communities.  Ingenuity,  enterprise,  and  taste  were 
rapidly  developed  ;  and  with  the  increase  of  the  wealth  of  the 
state  there  ensued  greater  individual  comfort  and  enjoyments 
— better  means,  in  fine,  of  procuring  health,  and  avoiding 
disease.  To  huts,  and  dark  and  unwholesome  habitations, 
succeeded  spacious,  if  not  always  well-aired  and  well-lighted 
mansions  ;  and  avenues  obstructed  by  mud  and  filth  were  re- 


18 

placed  by  paved  streets  ;  while  here  and  there  a  fountain  gave 
evidence  of  a  recognition  of  the  virtues  of  running  water,  and 
rendered  it  probable  that  abundance  for  use  was  secured  be- 
fore indulgence  in  ornament  was  allowed.  This  ameliorating 
process  was  chiefly  observable  in  the  free  cities  of  Germany 
and  Italy  ;  and  it  was  after  a  much  longer  period  that  even 
the  capitals  of  powerful  kingdoms,  such  as  London  and  Paris, 
were  wanting  in  most  of  the  essentials  for  the  preservation  of 
the  public  health.  The  streets  were  narrow  and  unpaved, 
and  with  their  own  mud  were  mixed  up  all  kinds  of  garbage 
and  offal ;  the  houses  were  for  the  most  part  small,  damp,  and 
badly  ventilated ;  water  for  both  public  and  private  wants, 
household  and  personal,  was  deficient  in  quantity  ;  and  when 
procured  often  tainted  with  impurities.  The  supply  of  food 
was  irregular,  and  never  in  the  variety  required  for  the  pur- 
poses of  health.  In  all  the  cities  of  Europe,  in  the  middle 
ages,  the  population  was  excessive,  owing  to  the  insecurity  of 
persons  and  property  outside  the  walls  during  their  frequent 
and  almost  continual  wars,  and  to  the  consequent  flight  of 
large  numbers  from  the  country,  who  sought  refuge  in  the 
city  from  the  sudden  fury  of  a  barbarous  enemy.  It  mattered 
but  little  whether  the  town  were  large  or  small ;  there  was 
always  a  disproportion  between  the  number  of  its  inhabit- 
ants and  the  space  for  habitation  and  change  of  air  Hence 
we  cannot  be  surprised  that  any  noticeable  deviation  from  the 
customary  states  of  the  atmosphere,  or,  still  more,  inter- 
ruption to  the  regular  supply  of  food,  should  have  been  fol- 
lowed in  city,  town,  and  hamlet,  with  pestilence  in  its  most 
appalling  and  deadly  forms.  Even  if  we  were  ignorant 
of  all  the  particulars  of  bad  medical  police,  or  of  its  entire 
neglect,  and  of  the  mode  of  living  during  this  period,  we  still 
could  not  fail  to  see  in  these  melancholy  chapters  of  the  de- 
vastations from  epidemic  diseases,  a  want  of  adequate  public 
hygiene,  if  not  a  total  ignorance  of  its  principles.  In  propor- 


19 


tion,  on  the  other  hand,  to  more  conformity  with,  and  a  better 
appreciation  of,  these  latter,  was  there  an  abatement,  if  not 
entire  disappearance  of  these  scourges  of  mankind.  Sani- 
tary measures,  methodically  carried  out,  were  followed  by 
improved  public  health  and  increased  duration  of  the  life  of 
the  individual.  ' 

Vital  statistics  enable  us  to  speak  with  confidence  of  the 
progressive  ameliorations,  in  these  respects,  which  accompanied 
advancing  civilization.  The  mortality  in  Paris  in  the  early 
part  of  the  fourteenth  century  has  been  estimated  from  a  manu- 
script document  to  be  1  in  20 ;  whereas  the  average  mor- 
tality of  the  inhabitants  of  that  city,  in  the  very  poorest 
arrondissement  or  ward,  as  we  might  term  it,  in  which  poverty 
and  destitution  are  extreme,  was  1  in  24,  in  the  first  third  of 
the  present  century.  The  average  deaths  in  all  Paris  at  the 
same  date  (1830)  was  1  in  32,  and  among  the  more  wealthy 
inhabitants,  1  in  42 ;  and  hence  we  are  safe  in  saying  that 
the  mechanic  of  the  present  day,  who  resides  in  the  French 
capital,  is  better  off  on  the  score  of  air  and  the  appliances  tor 
supporting  life,  than  the  rich  inhabitant  at  the  opening  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  notwithstanding  that  the  population  is  more 
than  300  times  greater  now  than  it  was  then.  The  difference  in 
the  vital  statistics  of  the  two  periods  thus  compared  is  easily 
explained  by  the  entire  neglect  of  public  hygiene  in  the  former, 
and  the  careful  attention  which  it  receives  in  the  latter.  Al- 
though paving  of  the  streets  of  Paris  had  been  begun  in  the 
twelfth  century,  under  Philip  Augustus,  yet  it  was  of  very 
limited  extent  at  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth,  when  Philip 
the  Fair  was  king.  At  that  time  the  streets  of  Paris  gave  out 
abominable  stenches,  so  obstructed  where  they  with  mud, 
dung,  and  other  excrementitial  substances  and  offal  of.all  kinds. 
Even  towards  the  close  of  the  century  things  were  no  better,  if 
we  may  judge  from  a  proclamation  of  Charles  VI.,  which  speaks 
of  the  pavement  being  so  broken  up  into  ruts,  that  it  was  dan- 


20 

gerous  in  many  places  to  ride  either  on  horse  Dack  or  in  a 
carriage  ;  and  that,  owing  to  the  accumulation  of  refuse  of  all 
kinds,  grave  diseases  and  death  were  common.  With  few 
exceptions,  the  houses  were  little  better  than  hovels.  Even 
down  to  the  early  period  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV.,  the 
greater  number  of  the  streets  were  still  unpaved,  or  paved 
only  on  one  side  and  at  certain  distances  ;  they  were  obstruct- 
ed also  by  the  same  kind  of  abominations  already  mentioned. 
'Historians  remark  that,  after  the  paving  of  Dijon,  the  ancient 
capital  of  Burgundy,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
dysentery,  spotted  fever,  and  other  diseases  became  of  less 
frequent  occurrence  in  that  city.  A  still  more  striking  example 
of  the  effect  of  improved  sanitary  legislation  in  increasing  the 
average  duration  of  human  life,  is  exhibited  in  the  registration 
of  the  births  and  deaths,  and  of  the  population  of  the  city  of  Ge- 
neva, during  the  last  three  centuries.  M.  Marc  d'Espine,  in  a 
late  work  on  "  Comparative  Mortuary  Statistics, "shows,  that 
the proba ble  life  at  Geneva  in  the  sixteenth  century  was  rather 
less  than  5  years  ;  in  the  seventeenth  century  11  years  ;  at 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  27  years  ;  at  the  end  of  the 
century  32  years ;  and  now  it  is  44  ^ears.  M.  Mallet  had 
previously  ascertained  from  the  same  documents,  that  the  mean 
duration  of  life  in  Geneva,  in  1833,  was  nearly  the  double  (or 
as  40  years  5  months  to  21  years  2  months)  of  that  reached 
rather  more  than  two  centuries  before. 

Causes  of  Pestilence. — Nearly  all  the  great  cities  of  the 
world  have  been  founded  on  the  banks  and  at  the  confluence 
of  rivers,  or  on  the  sea-shore,  where  the  ground  is  low,  flat, 
and  often  marshy,  and  liable  to  be  in  part  flooded  by  heavy 
rains,  or  the  overflow  of  adjoining  rivers.  In  localities  like 
these,  almost  invariably  at  particular  seasons,  and  under  cer- 
tain regularly  recurring  atmospherical  influences,  fevers  of  a 
periodical  kind  afflict  the  first  inhabitants.  It  was  so,  as  we 


21 


have  already  stated,  at  Kornp ;    and  in  the  cities  and'  small 
towns,  too,  of  modern  Europe,  as  well  as  those  in  America, 
the  same  unfavorable  localities  have  produced  the  same  effect, 
until  the  industry  and  art  of  the  inhabitants  have  been  exerted 
to  alter  the  surface  of  the  ground  by  firm  pavements  and  judi- 
cious draining,  so  that  the  water  coming  from  the  houses,  and 
that  falling  in  the  streets  in  the  shape  of  rain,  shall  readily  flow 
into  the  sewers  beneath,  in  place  of  being  allowed  to  stagnate 
in  ruts,  hollows,  and  pools,  and  afterwards,  with  the  aid  of 
heat,  to  bring  about  a  putrefactive  fermentation  of  all  the  refuse 
accumulated,  in  the  shape  of  vegetable  and  animal  offal,  and 
other  matters  which  are  thrown  or  otherwise  find  their  way 
into  the  streets.     A  compost  thus  formed  of  all  kinds  of  abomi- 
nations, in  union  with  the  filth  retained  in  most  of  the  houses 
of  Europe  during  the  middle  ages,  was  a  perpetually  sustain- 
ing cause,  not  only  of  periodical  fevers,  but  of  plague  itself. 
The  meterials  of  wood,  and  lath,  and  plaster,  of  which  the 
houses  were  chiefly  built,  by  retaining  moisture  and  yielding 
to  decay,  must  have  greatly  contributed  to  the  evolution  of 
foul  and  unwholesome  air,  which  was  added  to  the  permanent 
supply  in  the  streets.     Fire  in  some  instances  came  oppor- 
tunely to  purify  the  air,  while  it  destroyed  the  dwellings  in 
a  city.     The  great  fire  of  London  in  1665,  which  followed  the 
great  plague,  destroyed  thirteen  thousand  houses  and  eighty- 
nine  churches,  in  four  hundred  streets ;  but  it  left  the  English 
capital  free,  ever  after,  from  the  plague.     The  benefits  would 
have  been  much  more  complete  if  the  streets  had  been  laid  out 
after  a  general  and  uniform  plan,  instead  of  preserving  the  old 
lines,  although  many  of  them  were  made  wider.     To  this  last 
circumstance,  and  the  better  construction  of  the  houses,  both 
as  regards  the  material,  brick,  and  the  larger  access  of  light 
and  air,  was  the  new  city  indebted  for  a  higher  sanitary  stan- 
dard than  it  had  ever  attained  before.     But  the  imperfect 
paving  and  drainage  of  London  still  left  it  open  to  intermittent 


22 

And  dysentry,  "both  of  which  prevailed  every  year.  It 
will  surprise  many  persons,  general  readers  too,  when  they  are 
told  that  the  mortality  from  the  former  cause  alone,  in  a  popu- 
lation at  the  time  not  greater  than  that  of  Philadelphia,  was 
from  one  to  two  thousand  persons  annually.  Now,  it  scarcely 
figures  on  the  mortuary  list,  owing  to  the  great  sanitary  im- 
provements in  the  metropolis,  especially  under  the  heads  just 
mentioned.  In  former  times,  it  appears  that  Walbrook,  Sher- 
bourne,  Longbourne,  and  Oldbourne,  were  really  brooks,  often 
closed  up  by  filth,  and  in  some  places  the  currents  so  much 
obstructed  as  to  form  pools.  A  large  portion  of  the  country 
also,  around  London,  was  a  marsh,  and  indeed  the  banks  of  the 
Thames,  from  Lambeth  to  Woolwich,  was  one  continued 
swamp.  All  these  parts,  however,  have  been  underdrained, 
extensive  sewers  formed,  the  ditches  filled  up,  the  river  banked 
out,  and  the  site  generally  rendered  so  dry,  that  London  is 
now  unquestionably  not  only  the  most  healthy  capital  in 
Europe,  but  on  the  score  of  salubrity,  is  scarcely  rivaled  by 
any  city  in  the  world. 

Venice. — We  have  been  accustomed  to  read  and  to  speak 
of  the  wonderful  and  almost  miraculous  progress  of  Rome, 
from  a  small  and  insignificant  beginning  to  universal  empire, 
and  to  expatiate  on  the  firmness,  courage,  and  martial  spirit 
of  her  people,  which  bore  them  up  under  the  most  trying  and 
adverse  circumstances.  Viewed  under  another,  and  hygienic 
aspect,  her  career  must  excite  our  surprise  and  admiration  to  a 
still  geater  extent,  when  we  reflect  on  the  eminently  unfavora- 
ble geographical  situation  of  the  city,  as  every  way  adverse  to 
health,  and  to  the  growth  in  numbers,  wealth,  and  splendor 
which  she  ultimately  attained.  It  would  indeed  be  difficult  to 
adduce  a  stronger  and  more  convincing  proof  of  the  importance 
of  sanitary  measures,  not  only  for  the  prosperity,  but  for  the 
existence  of  a  city,  than  was  exhibited  in  the  history  of  Rome. 
But  in  more  modern  times  the  same  instructive  lessons  have 


23 

been  taught,  witfi  even  greater  force  and  point,  by  the  founda- 
tion and  growth  of  the  three  great  cities  of  Venice,  Amsterdam, 
and  St.  Petersburg.  Had  the  refugees  from  the  mainland, 
who  fled,  before  Attila  and  his  Huns,  to  the  small  islands  in 
the  lagunes  of  the  Adriatic,  hesitated  to  procure  a  stable  and 
permanent  abiding-place  for  themselves  amid  the  waters,  and 
to  set  about  laying  at  once  the  foundations  of  a  mart  for  com- 
merce, they  might,  perhaps,  have  had  a  line  in  history,  telling 
of  their  love  of  freedom  and  of  their  success  as  fishermen  and 
buccaneers,  but  never  would  the  world  have  heard  of  the  name 
of  Venice,  or  of  its  extensive  trade  and  political  power.  Never 
would  the  spectacle  have  been  exhibited  of  a  great  city  rising 
as  it  were  out  of  the  sea,  and  resplendent  with  marble  palaces, 
and  churches,  and  piazzas,  and  with  rich  tessellated  pavements, 
and  houses,  many  of  them,  palatial  in  size  and  architectural 
decorations,  and  nearly  all  of  these  edifices,  both  public  and 
private,  built  on  piers.  There  was  pavement-foundation  of  a 
new  kind,  and  upon  a  large  and  costly  scale;  but  how  fully  was 
the  expense  repaid  !  Where  canals  take,  in  most  cases,  the 
place  of  streets,  these  are  necessarily  small,  if  not  insignifi- 
cant ;  but  their  pavements  required  a  heavier  outlay  than  that 
of  many  of  the  broad  avenues  of  other  cities.  What  shall 
be  said  of  the  engineering  skill  in  making  the  canals,  and  in 
preserving  their  requisite  levels,  as  well  as  of  the  labor  in  pre- 
venting undue  accumulations  of  offal  and  refuse  of  all  kinds 
cast  into  them.  The  entire  exemption  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Venice  from  periodical  fevers,  is  well  calculated  to  excite  sur- 
prise under  any  view  which  may  be  taken  of  the  peculiar  to- 
pographical features  of  the  city.  During  the  summer  months 
the  lagunes  give  out  very  unpleasant  odors. 

Amsterdam  had  as  small  and  unpropitious  beginning 
as  the  Queen  of  the  Adriatic,  and  like  that  of  the  latter, 
it  was  a  maritime  one.  Its  founders  were,  first,  a  few  fish- 


24 

ermen,  and  then  a  few  traders,  whose  early  efforts  were  direct- 
ed to  prevent  them  from  sinking  in  the  morasses  on  which  they 
had  erected  their  humble  dwellings,  and  from  having  these 
swept  away  by  the  sudden  rising  of  the  stormy  Zuyder  Zee. 
Drainage  by  canals  gave  them  something  like  terra  Jirma  in 
their  marshes,  while  dykes  sheltered  them  from  the  capricious 
fury  of  the  ocean.  Industry  and  enterprise  thus  early  exer- 
cised were  not  long  in  being  directed  into  the  channels  of  an 
extensive  and  lucrative  commerce,  which  brought  the  inhabi- 
tants wealth  and  a  mercantile  marine.  Its  tonnage  constituted 
a  large  part  of  that  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces,  and  this, 
at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  was  nearly  equal  to 
the  tonnage  of  all  the  rest  of  Europe.  Amsterdam  presents 
the  spectacle  of  a  flourishing  and  handsomely-built  city,  of 
more  than  two  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  with  well-paved 
and  clean  streets,  which  sometimes  run  parallel  to,  and  some- 
times are  intersected  by,  numerous  canals,  and  with  public 
and  private  edifices  evincing  durability,  taste,  and  wealth. 
The  whole  of  them  rest  on  piles ;  and  hence  the  common  re- 
mark, assuming  the  tone  of  complaint,  that  a  house  costs  as 
much  below  as  above  the  ground.  It  should  be  remembered, 
however,  that  a  house  is  worth  little  above-ground  anywhere, 
as  a  residence,  unless  the  under-ground  be  well  kept,  and  rest 
on  a  dry  and  properly-drained  soil.  Notwithstanding,  how- 
ever, all  the  pains  taken  to  keep  the  canals  of  Amsterdam 
clear  of  accumulations  of  filth  or  other  obstruction,  the  depth 
of  water  is  often  insufficient  to  prevent  offensive  and  injurious 
exhalations,  which  affect  the  health  and  lessen  the  mean  dura- 
tion of  the  life  of  the  inhabitants.  What  is  here  said  of  Am- 
sterdam applies  to  nearly  all  Holland.  The  people  of  that 
country,  inhabiting  a  barren  soil,  alternately  marsh  and  sand, 
and  almost  submerged  by  water,  and  breathing  an  atmosphere 
the  most  unfriendly  to  human  comfort,  so  far  from  retiring  be- 
fore the  encroachments  of  the  ocean,  erect  barriers  to  restrain 


25 


its  fury,  give  new  channels  to  their  sluggish  waves,  drain  by 
numerous  canals  their  marshes  and  morasses,  and  convert,  as 
it  were,  the  elements  which  seemed  to  be  the  means  of  de- 
struction, into  so  many  sources  of  wealth  and  power. 

/St.  Petersburg,  the  capital  of  the  Russian  empire,  rests,  like 
Venice  and  Amsterdam,  on  made  ground,  once  an  area  of 
marsh  and  bog,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Neva.  Its  foundation, 
unlike,  however,  that  of  the  free  cities  just  named,  was  owing 
to  the  despotic  will  of  one  man,  Peter  the  Great,  who  tri- 
umphed over  nature,  but  at  an  enormous  sacrifice  of  human 
life.  History  tells  of  forty  thousand  men  having  been  em- 
ployed at  one  time  in  the  preliminary  work  of  draining  of  the 
soil,  and  filling  up  pools  and  quagmires  ;  and  of  three  hundred 
thousand  men  having  lost  their  lives  before  the  work  was  com- 
pleted. Now,  we  look  at  a  magnificent  capital,  containing  a 
population  of  half  a  million  of  souls,  with  its  wide  and  long 
streets,  its  grand  stone  quays  extending  for  three  miles  on 
each  side  of  the  Neva,  its  apparently  endless  lines  of  imposing 
houses  in  a  uniform  style  of  architecture  for  entire  blocks  and 
even  streets,  interspersed  with  churches  and  palaces  and  gov- 
ernment edifices.  All  this  has  been  created  within  the  period 
that  has  elapsed  since  the  foundation  and  first  settlement  of 
Philadelphia.  Well  might  it  be  said,  after  a  study  of  the  rise 
and  growth  of  all  the  great  capitals  and  celebrated  cities  of 
the  world,  that  the  first  and  the  most  important  chapter  in  the 
history  of  civilization  is  that  of  drainage.  If  there  be  exceptions, 
they  will  be  found,  for  the  most  part,  to  strengthen  and  en- 
force the  general  practice,  by  showing  the  inconveniences  and 
loss  caused  by  its  neglect. 

JBerlin.—A&  a  part  of  the  contrasted  picture  of  neglect  of 
the  most  important  measures  of  sanitary  legislation  in  cities, 
we  may  adduce  the  instance  of  Berlin,  the  capital  of  Prussia. 
For  the  first  half  of  the  seventeenth  century,  its  streets  were 


26 

not  entirely  paved  ;  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  century  they 
were  never  swept.  The  new  market  was  paved  as  late  as 
1679.  How  different  the  state  of  things  in  the  commercial 
and  free  city  of  Augsburg,  the  paving  of  which  was  begun  in 
the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century ;  and  in  the  earliest  pe- 
riods it  had  subterranean  passages  or  sewers.  In  Berlin,  on 
the  other  hand,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century  t 
(1671),  every  countryman  who  came  to  the  market  was  re- 
quired to  carry  away  with  him  a  load  of  dirt.  Hog-styes  were 
erected  on  the  streets,  sometimes  under  the  windows.  Berlin 
had  no  regular  sewers  or  underground  drains  at  as  recent  a 
date  as  1846.  A  sluggish  but  considerable  river,  the  Spree, 
almost  stagnates  in  the  town. '  It  might  be  made  a  grand 
cloaque,  connecting  with  the  other  drains  when  covered,  and 
the  whole  of  them,  as  well  as  the  streets,  could  be  washed  by 
water  raised  by  engines,  at  a  cost  not  greater  than  that  now 
incurred  for  stucco  work,  and  other  outside  decorations  for  the 
houses.  Large  puddles  of  filth  are  allowed  to  collect  before 
the  doors  even  of  the  best  houses,  which,  especially  in  the  last 
months  of  summer,  diffuse  a  most  horrible  stench.  It  must 
be  admitted,  however,  that  the  low  situation  of  the  town  ren- 
ders drainage  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  Laing,  the  traveler, 
speaking  of  Berlin  as  he  found  it  1841',  says :  "  It  is  a  fine 
city,  very  like  the  age  she  represents — very  fine,  and  very 
nasty.  The  streets  are  spacious  and  straight,  with  broad  mar- 
gins on  each  side  for  foot-passengers ;  and  a  band  of  broad 
flag-stones  on  their  margins,  make  them  much  more  walkable 
than  the  streets  of  most  continental  towns.  But  these  mar- 
gins are  divided  from  the  spacious  carriage-way  in  the  middle 
by  open  kennels,  telling  the  most  unutterable  things.  These 
open  kennels  are  boarded  over  only  at  the  gateways  of  the  pal- 
aces, to  let  the  carriages  cross  them,  and  must  be  particularly 
convenient  to  the  inhabitants,  for  they  are  not  at  all  particu- 
larly agreeable."  "  If  bronze  and  marble  could  smell,  Bluch- 


27 


er  and  Bulow,  Schwerin  and  Ziethen,  and  duck-winged  angels, 
and  two-headed  eagles  innumerable,  would  be  found  on  their 
pedestals,  holding  their  noses  instead  of  grasping  [as  in  the 
case  of  the  generals]  their  swords."  Berlin  is  still  so  far  be- 
hindhand in  the  comforts  of  life,  as  not  to  have  water  conveyed 
in  pipes  into  the  city  and  the  houses.  "  Three  hundred  thou- 
sand people  have  taste  enough  to  be  in  dreamy  ecstasies  at 
the  singing  of  Madame  Pasta,  or  the  dancing  of  Taglioni,  and 
have  not  taste  enough  to  appreciate  or  feel  the  want  of  a  sup- 
ply of  water  in  their  kitchens,  sculleries,  drains,  sewers,  and 
water-closets."  No  surprise  need  be  felt  that  Berlin  was 
scourged  with  the  cholera  in  1831,  and  again  with  still  great- 
er severity  in  1837.  Putting  aside  drainage,  the  Prussian 
capital  is,  in  the  width  and  general  arrangements  of  the  streets, 
and  the  better  ventilation  of  the  houses,  superior  to  the  French ; 
but  yet  the  proportionate  mortality  from  Cholera  was  much 
greater,  or  at  the  rate  of  nearly  2J  to  1  in  1831,  in  the  former 
than  in  the  latter  city — which,  as  commonly  described,  was 
so  great  a  sufferer.  In  the  second  attack  (in  1837),  the  mor- 
tality was  still  heavier  in  Berlin,  or,  as  the  difference  between 
1426  and  2174  deaths.  There,  as  in  nearly  every  city  in 
which  the  Cholera  made  its  attack,  the  greater  number  of 
cases,  and  the  chief  mortality,  were  found  in  dark,  narrow 
streets,  inaccessible  to  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  to  winds,  and 
in  low,  damp  habitations,  especially  near  the  water. 

Neglect  of  Sanitary  Legislation. — During  the  last  two 
centuries,  colonization  and  incidental  conquest  have  exerted  a 
powerful  influence  on  the  political  and  social  relations  of  the 
different  countries  in  both  hemispheres,  from  which  neither 
Hindoo  nor  Chinese,  Turk  nor  Tartar,  Indian  nor  Negro  are 
exempt.  Consequent  upon  the  vast  extension  and  the  open- 
ings of  new  channels  of  commerce,  have  been  the  foundation 
and  growth  of  many  cities,  the  inhabitants  of  which,  in  their 


28 

eagerness  for  gain,  have  hardly  allowed  themselves,  until 
recently,  time  to  attend  to  the  obvious  requirements  of  public 
hygiene.  Looking  too  much  at  the  surface,  they  have  often 
neglected  proper  draining  and  sewerage,  and  the  means  of  pro- 
curing an  adequate  supply  of  water ;  and,  more  surprising  still, 
a  renewal  of  fresh  air  by  suitable  ventilation.  The  conse- 
quences of  this  neglect  have  been  the  production  of  febrile 
and  other  diseases,  which  have  not  only  destroyed  life  to  a 
fearful  extent,  but  retarded  industry  and  greatly  interfered 
with  social  progress  and  educational  amelioration.  These  evils 
are  not  confined  to  Calcutta  and  New  Orleans,  to  Cairo  and 
Constantinople ;  they  are  but  too  apparent  in  Liverpool  and 
Manchester,  and  Glasgow,  and  New  York ;  and,  although 
in  less  degree,  in  Boston,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore,  not  to 
speak  of  our  great  inland  towns  on  the  Mississippi  and  its 
tributaries,  and  on  our  great  Lakes.  Little  admonished  by 
the  history  of  former  ages,  the  people  of  Europe  and  America 
have  paid  but  scant  attention  to  the  best  measures  for  pre- 
venting diseases,  and  for  preserving  health  among  the  masses. 
The  poor,  and  the  destitute,  and  the  degraded,  have  been  too 
long  allowed  to  remain  in  their  ignorance,  to  grovel  in  their 
filth,  and  while  suffering  acutely  themselves,  to  spread  around 
them  the  contamination  and  contagion  of  the  diseases  of  body 
and  of  mind,  which  inevitably  result  from  their  neglected  con- 
dition. The  philanthropic  few  have,  from  time  to  time,  re- 
monstrated :  they  have  also  recommended,  and  as  far.7as 
their  limited  efforts  would  allow,  have  carried  out  improve- 
ments ;  but  the  former  have  never  obtained  a  full  public 
hearing,  and  the  latter  were  too  partial  in  their  nature  to 
prune,  still  less  to  eradicate,  the  wide-spread  and  constantly 
growing  evils.  The  Plague  of  Asia  and  Africa,  the  Yellow 
Fever  of  America,  the  Typhus  Fever  in  Europe,  and  the 
Cholera  in  all  quarters  of  the  world,  have  spread  fright  and 
death,  have  elicited  many  legislative  and  municipal  enact- 


29 

ments,  and  given  rise  to  acts  of  heroic  devotion  for  the  relief  of 
suffering  and  humanity  ;  but  until  a  recent  period  they  have 
failed,  notwithstanding  their  frequent  and  dreaded  visits,  to 
fix  the  attention  of  the  several  communities,  among  which 
they  have  been  most  rife,  on  their  real,  and  as  far  as  could  be 
ascertained,  their  preventible  causes.  It  is  under  these  cir- 
cumstances that  Hygeia  may  be  invoked,  not  merely  as  the 
handmaid  of  Medicine,  but  as  the  potent  divinity  saving  her 
tens  of  thousands  of  lives,  while  the  latter  can  only  hope  to 
rescue  her  hundreds,  after  incredible  efforts  and  expense  on 
the  part  of  her  immediate  votaries. 

Concurrently  with  the  increase,  and  both  as  an  effect,  and, 
in  turn,  a  cause  of  commerce,  have  been  the  vast  extension 
and  multiplication  of  manufactures  within  the  past  century, 
and  the  concentration  of  human  beings,  in  consequence,  far 
beyond  what  would  be  allowable  on  any  principle  of  hygiene. 
Deprived,  as  so  many  tens  of  thousands  are,  in  the  great 
manufacturing  cities  and  towns  of  Great  Britain  and  France, 
of  the  common  air  and  common  light,  pent  up  in  close  and 
damp,  often  underground  lodgings  by  night,  and  forced  to  ex- 
traordinary and  yet  partial  bodily  efforts  by  day,  receiving  an 
inadequate  supply  of  food,  and  tempted  by  their  overpower- 
ing feelings  of  exhaustion  and  depression  to  seek  for  tempo- 
rary renovation  and  excitement  in  the  use  of  ardent  spirits, 
or  fermented  and  drugged,  erst  called  malt  liquors,  what 
wonder  that  they  are  invaded  by  disease  in  every  shape — 
fevers,  pulmonary  consumption,  scrofula,  and  all  that  can 
disfigure  and  deform?  The  picture  is  a  gloomy  one,  and 
suggestive  of  fearful  forebodings ;  it  has  long  enlisted  the 
sympathies  of  the  benevolent,  and  has  at  last  startled  the  self- 
ish and  the  avaricious,  who  feel  a  well-grounded  alarm  at 
the  probability  of  the  continued  sufferings  and  degradation  of 
a  neglected,  if  not  despised,  class  of  their  fellow-beings  di- 
minishing their  own  gains.  But  we  must  not  scrutinize 


30 

motives  too  closely,  if  the  acts  be  of  an  ameliorating  and 
kindly  nature.  Enlightened  public  spirit  is  urging  those 
who  have  the  power,  to  make  the  requisite  reforms,  and  in 
legislative  snactments,  as  well  as  in  voluntary  associations 
and  individual  liberality,  satisfactory  proofs  are  given  of  a 
new  and  better  state  of  things.  Recurrence  will  soon  be 
made  to  this  subject.  In  some  of  the  towns  of  England,  of 
late  years,  public  baths  have  been  opened,  and  public  wash- 
houses  erected,  so  as  to  insure  to  the  poorer  classes  cleanliness 
of  person  and  clothing,  two  great  means  of  preserving  health, 
and,  indirectly,  of  aiding  the  cause  of  morals  ;  the  mind  re- 
ceiving from  the  body's  purity  a  secret  sympathetic  aid. 

The  burden  of  sanitary  legislation  is  protection  of  the 
public  health,  compatibly  with  the  rights  of  person  and  pro- 
perty, and  the  pursuits  of  industry.  The  common  right 
of  all  is  entire  enjoyment  of  the  material  conditions  for 
healthy  life.  This  right  is  seldom  obtained  in  its  full 
latitude.  It  is  too  often  neglected  by  those  who  might, 
with  care,  enjoy  it ;  and,  still  oftener,  it  is  withheld 
or  violated  by  force  or  selfishness  in  such  a  way  that 
the  people  in  mass  find  it  difficult  to  obtain  justice.  The  con- 
test between  cupidity  and  sanitary  rights  is  sometimes  un- 
avoidable, but  more  frequently  it  arises  from  the  ignorance 
on  the  part  of  the  opponents  of  reform.  So  soon  as  people 
are  congregated  in  cities  and  other  marts  of  business,  they  dis- 
cover, on  coming  to  a  common  understanding,  the  necessity 
of  giving  up  the  indulgence  of  individual  will  when  it  conflicts 
with  the  public  good.  Hence  municipal  laws  for  regulating 
thoroughfare,  and  for  the  introduction  and  export  of  various  arti- 
cles of  commerce,  especially  the  products  of  agriculture.  Eve- 
ry citizen  is  insured  the  right  of  way  through  all  the  streets, 
in  the  pursuit  of  business  or  pleasure;  and  he  is  protected  by 
stringent  laws  from  the  dishonesty  of  those  who  would  sell 
him  tainted  meat,  or  provisions  at  short  weight.  It  is  not 


31 


in  any  view  of  sentimental  philanthrophy  or  of  ascetic  re- 
striction, but  in  the  name  of  humanity  and  justice,  that  so 
many  of  our  fellow-citizens,  in  all  the  walks  of  life,  are  urgent 
for  similar  prohibitions  against  the  retail  trade  in  liquid  poison, 
the  product  of  alcoholic  distillation — the  original  noxious  effects 
of  which  on  the  animal  economy  are  still  further  increased  by 
the  addition  of  some  of  the  most  subtle  and  active  poisons  de- 
rived from  other  sources. 

Individual  caprice  and  heedlessness  are  checked  in  acts 
which  conflict  with  the  rights  of  the  majority,  in  fact,  of  the 
public  at  large,  as  when  a  person  would  extend  the  front  of 
his  house  beyond  the  regular  line,  or  pile  up  goods  or  wares 
in  the  middle  of  the  street.  It  would  be  well  that  some  limit- 
ation should  be  put  also  to  the  height  of  the  house,  in  order 
that  a  whole  neighborhood  and  the  passers-by  may  not  be  put 
in  jeopardy,  or  suffer  from  the  loss  of  limb  and  life  itself  by  the 
fall  of  these  lofty  structures,  which  are  neither  dedicated  to 
religion  nor  to  any  public  use,  but  which  seem  to  be  merely 
monuments  of  the  silly  vanity  of  individuals.  The  exclusion  of 
the  cheerful  and  genial  sunlight  from  the  street,  and  the  re- 
stricted ventilation  produced  by  such  lofty  piles,  might  count 
for  something,  even  though  questions  of  this  nature  do  not 
enter  into  the  calculations  of  cost  and  profit  by  the  first 
owners.  Paving  and  draining  and  sewerage  are  also  recognized 
parts  of  city  police  and  sanitary  legislation,  to  which  all  hold- 
ers of  property  are  made  to  contribute,  for  the  public  good  as 
well  as  for  their  own  personal  benefit.  Public  convenience 
and  public  health  are  subserved  by  these  means,  the  perform- 
ance or  which  is  insured  by  regularly  appointed  agents,  and 
boards  of  health.  Few  will  be  found  in  the  large  cities  of 
Europe  and  America  to  contest  the  propriety  and  wisdom  of 
all  these  measures  of  public  hygiene,  to  which  must  be  added 
the  procuring  a  suitable  supply  of  pure  water,  although,  in 
many  smaller  places,  they  may  be,  at  first,  thought  to  be  un- 


32 

called  for,  and  to  involve  an  expenditure  of  money  beyond  the 
good  to  be  obtained.  It  is  seldom,  however,  that  experience 
does  not  show  the  groundless  nature  of  these  objections,  both 
in  a  sanitary  and  economical  point  of  view.  There  are  not 
wanting,  indeed,  persons  in  every  country,  Christian  or  Mo- 
hammedan, who  claim,  as  one  of  their  reserved  rights,  the 
privilege  of  having  their  senses  of  sight  and  smell  assailed  by 
emanations  from  all  kinds  of  offal  and -garbage,  and  the  stag- 
nant water  of  gutters,  as  if  to  mark  the  difference  between 
town  and  country,  and,  at  the  same  time,  their  freedom  from 
restrictive  laws.  There  are  also  not  a  few  who,  with  tastes 
akin  to  those  of  the  preceding  class,  claim  that  their  house  is 
their  castle,  and  that  they  have  a  right  to  exclude  the  air  from 
it  as  carefully  as  if  they  were  in  a  state  of  siege,  and  had  been 
obliged  to  close  every  aperture  through  which  an  enemy's  mis- 
Bile  might  find  entrance. 

Community  of  Interests. — State  policy,  isself,  however 
little  affinity  it  may  seem  to  have  to  philanthropy  and  philo- 
sophy, is  deeply  concerned  in  the  inculcation  and  enforcement 
of  the  true  principles  of  public  hygiene.  The  power  of  a  state 
depends  on  the  population,  wealth,  and  productive  industry, 
and  on  the  cultivated  intelligence  of  its  people ;  trammels  on 
all  of  which  are  created  by  whatever  deteriorates  the  physical 
strength  and  the  health  of  any  portion  of  them.  Perma- 
nent injury  to  the  public  health  exerts,  at  the  same  time,  an 
unfavorable  influence  on  the  social  state  ;  and  hence  poverty, 
with  its  frequent  concomitants  of  hunger  and  the  daily  alter- 
nations of  eager  expectation  of  relief  and  of  depression  of  the 
feelings,  has  ever  been  a  promoter  of  secret  and  political  dis- 
organization. While  philanthropy  incites  to  more  extended 
efforts  for  the  relief  and  prevention  of  sufferings  which  are  the 
result  of  a  breach  of  the  natural  laws  or  those  of  health,  ex- 
panded philosophy  teaches  that,  although  some  classes  in  every 
city  pay  the  heaviest  penalties,  yet  there  is  no  one  class  ex- 


33 


empt  from  similar  inflictions.  The  rich  man,  in  his  spacious 
mansion,  has  a  direct  personal  interest  in  the  health  and  do- 
mestic comfort  of  his  poor  neighbor  ;  and  the  more  secluded 
and  shut  out  from  the  world,  in  a  dark  court  or  alley,  is  this 
neighbor,  the  greater  is  this  interest.  His  open  windows  will 
give  entrance,  not  only  to  the  refreshing  breeze,  but  also  to 
the  poisoned  air  emanating  from  congregated  beings  in  the 
confined  lodgings,  and  from  the  unremoved  refuse  or  offal  ad- 
jacent. It  is  thus  that  Typhus  Fever,  beginning  in  the  hovels 
of  the  poor,  finds  its  way  into  the  luxurious  abodes  of  the  rich. 
'YV'ere  it  necessary  to  continue  in  this  line  of  argument,  we  might 
point  to  the  importance  of  sanitary  legislation  for  the  em- 
ployer or  master  manufacturer,  as  well  as  for  the  operatives  and 
workmen.  His  real  interest  will  not  consist  in  obtaining 
from  them  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  work  from  day  to 
day,  without  reference  to  their  having  a  due  proportion  of 
time  for  sleep,  and  of  moderate  recreation  in  the  open  air. 
Nor  will  it  be  good  economy  to  stint  these  persons  in  the 
quantity  of  wholesome  food  which  is  necessary  not  merely 
to  remove  the  cravings  of  hunger,  but  to  renovate  the  body 
weakened  by  labor.  The  landlord  who  desires  to  have  his 
houses  always  occupied  by  good  paying  tenants,  will  not  be  neg- 
ligent of  either  their  health  or  their  morals.  He  will  not 
speculate  on  the  powers  of  endurance  of  human  beings,  when 
deprived  of  fresh  air  by  residence  in  close,  damp,  and  badly- 
ventilated  rooms,  and  who  are  compelled  to  inhale  an  impure 
and  vitiated  air,  the  product  of  their  own  respiration,  and  the 
exhalations  from  the  accumulated  filth  of  cess-pools,  and  of 
yards  choked  up  by  offal.  The  inmates  of  such  habitations 
are,  necessarily,  less  fitted  for  labor  and  active  employment 
of  every  kind ;  lose  more  time  by  sickness,  and  are  carried 
off  in  larger  proportion  by  death  than  those  in  more  favorable 
hygienic  conditions.  Their  nervous  system  is  weakened  in 

the  functions  of  the  senses  and  of  the  brain ;  and,  even  if  in- 
3 


34 


temperance  should  not  add  its  baneful  influence  to  their 
distress,  they  are  more  susceptible  to  the  causes  of  moral 
disorders  and  the  temptations  to  evil  doing.  Men,  thus 
wearied  and  worn,  depressed  in  body  and  in  mind,  and 
deprived  of  all  the  genial  excitement  from  fresh  air  and  light, 
and  shut  out  from  all  the  objects  which  might  remind  them  of 
nature,  under  her  more  pleasing  aspects,  become  careless  of 
themselves,  indifferent  to  the  wants  of  their  families,  and 
regardless  of  the  obligations  contracted  with  employer  and 
landlord,  or  with  the  administrators  of  the  laws.  They  are 
unfitted  for  prolonged  and  regular  labor.  They  are  bad  work- 
men, bad  tenants,  and  unsafe  neighbors.  We  shall  conclude 
what  is  to  be  said  of  the  benefits  of  a  good  sanitary  system, 
both  to  the  rich  and  the  poor,  by  repeating  that  right  royal 
sentiment  of  Prince  Albert,  on  the  occasion  of  his  taking  the 
chair  at  a  meeting  of  the  "  Society  for  improving  the  Condition 
of  the  Working  Classes."  u  Depend  upon  it,"  said  the 
princely  chairman,  "  that  the  interests  of  the  often-contrasted 
classes  are  identical,  and  it  is  only  ignorance  which  prevents 
their  uniting  to  the  advantage  of  each  other." 

Paving. — The  sanitary  reforms  which  have  been  carried 
out  within  the  last  ten  or  fifteen  years  in  Great  Britain,  and 
those  which  are  still  in  progress,  following  as  they  do  a  care- 
ful investigation  of  the  evils  and  abuses  to  be  corrected, 
enable  us  to  speak  with  additional  confidence  of  the  import- 
ance and  economy  of  sanitary  measures  to  cities,  and  to 
adduce  a  large  body  of  facts  alike  pertinent  and  convincing. 
Your  reporter  will  content  himself  with  introducing  at  this 
time  some  statements  taken  from  a  mass  of  evidence  which 
he  had  previously  collected  for  other  purposes.  To  begin 
wtih  paving )  it  might  be  sufficient  to  say  that  the  evils  from 
neglect  of  it  are  pointed  out  in  most  of  the  reports  on  the 
health  of  towns,  but  we  cannot  forbear  from  again  adverting 
to  the  effects  witnessed  in  London.  Before  the  streets  of  that 


35 


metropolis  were  paved,  the  inhabitants  were  as  great  sufferers 
'from  periodical  fevers  as  those  of  the  worst  situated  rural 
districts  in  our  own  country,  and  until  underground  drainage 
had  been  adopted  to  some  extent,  dysentery  was  common  and 
.*  largely  fatal.  Drawing  on  home  experience,  it  has  been  found 
that  in  Philadelphia,  the  exemption  of  the  inhabitants  from 
intermittent  and  bilious  remittent  fevers  has,  with  great  uni- 
formity, followed  the  paving  of  the  streets.  The  space  now 
called  Dock  street  was,  in  the  early  days  of  the  history  of 
Philadelphia,  a  miry  swamp,  traversed  by  the  sluggish  stream 
Dock  creek,  on  either  side  of  which  periodical  fevers,  of 
all  grades,  prevailed  with  a  violence  equal  to  those  met  with 
in  the  most  sickly  districts  in  distant  States.  The  exposed 
surface  having  been  paved,  and  the  creek  partly  filled  up  and 
covered  over,  and  made  the  line  of  a  great  culvert,  no  person 
residing  there  now  has  any  apprehension  of  fevers,  such  as 
those  that  affected  the  former  dwellers  there.  A  like  change 
from  the  operation  of  a  similar  cause  has  been  wrought  in  the 
districts  of  Southwark,  Kensington,  aud  Richmond.  The 
change  in  the  sanitary  condition  of  Southwark  is  the  more 
obviously  due  to  paving  and  subsequent  attention  to  scaven- 
gering,  as  the  greater  part  of  the  drainage  is  on  the  surface, 
owing  to  the  limited  extent  of  sewers. 

A.n  important  lesson  is  deduced  from  the  history  of  the 
foundation  of  new  cities,  or  the  extension  of  the  streets  of  old 
ones,  viz.  :  that  paving  ought  to  precede  the  erection  of 
houses,  and  drainage  follow  habitation  at  a  very  early  period. 
A  neglect  of  these  two  preliminary  conditions  for  public 
health  has  been  productive,  in  all  ages,  of  a  fearful  waste  of 
life  ;  we  say  waste,  because  the  deaths  were  readily  prevent- 
able. Actually  at  this  time  the  pavement  of  the  seventy 
miles  of  streets  in  Boston  furnishes  a  cheap  protection  to 
the  inhabitants  against  the  evils  arising  out  of  the  constant 
presence  and  accumulation  of  town  mud  and  filth,  and  other 


36 


abominations  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  remove  from 
any  ground  not  coated  in  this  way.  This  is  the  more  evi- 
dent when  we  learn  that  for  the  length  of  seventy  miles  of 
streets,  there  are  but  twenty-five  miles  of  sewers,  many 
of  which  were  some  years  ago  one  third  to  one  half  filled 
with  mud.  Baltimore  is  mainly  indebted  to  street  pavement 
for  the  drainage  which  is  done  at  the  surface,  as  the  aggre- 
gate length  of  all  the  sewers  ten  years  ago  did  not  exceed 
two  miles.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  the 
beneficial  change  in  the  health  of  a  city  produced  by  paving 
its  streets,  is  furnished  in  the  history  of  Louisville,  Kentucky, 
which  from  being  called  the  grave-yard  of  the  West,  is  now 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  healthy  cities  of  that  extensive 
region.  Intermittent  fever  was,  as  we  learn  from  Dr.  L.  P. 
Yandell,  a  regular  annual  visitor,  and  occasionally  a  form  of 
bilious  fever  prevailed,  rivaling  Yellow  Fever  in  malignity, 
and  threatening  to  depopulate  the  town.  The  citizens, 
awakened,  after  the  fever  of  1822,  to  a  sense  of  their  condi- 
tion and  to  the  means  of  mending  it,  set  about  a  system  of 
improvement,  the  chief  feature  of  which  was  paving  of  the 
streets  and  filling  up  of  the  ponds.  The  change  in  the  sani- 
tary character  of  Louisville  is  the  more  noticeable,  as  it  was 
brought  about  without  the  aid  of  subsoil  drainage  by  sewers. 
It  has  been  truly  said  that  fever  loves  the  banks  of  rivers, 
the  borders  of  marshes,  the  edges  of  stagnant  pools  ;  it  makes 
itself  at  home  in  the  neighborhood  of  cess-pools  and  badly  con- 
structed drains,  and  takes  especial  delight  in  the  incense  of 
gully-holes.  It  should  be  added  at  the  same  time,  that  fever, 
at  least  of  the  periodical  kind,  will  be  prevented  from  show- 
ing itself  by  its  favorite  haunts  being  covered  with  a  good 
pavement,  so  as  to  separate  at  once  and  permanently  from  the 
sun  and  air,  the  bed  of  moist  putrefactive  materials  which 
ferment  and  give  rise  to  the  continual  evolution  of  noxious 
gases.  But  the  guardians  of  the  public  health  must  not  relax 


37 


their  vigilance  after  the  construction  of  suitable  street  pave- 
ments, for,  unless  there  be  enforcement  of  a  regular  system  of 
scavengering,  their  surface  will  soon  be  covered  with  semi- 
fluid mud,  and  offal,  and  vegetable  and  animal  refuse,  which 
will  represent  too  faithfully  and  fatally  the  banks  of  rivers,  a 
marsh,  or  the  edge  of  ponds,  and  the  contents  of  cess-pools 
and  gullies. 

Cleansing  of  the  Streets. — Cleansing  of  the  streets,  by  a 
proper  system  of  scavengering,  is  called  for,  both  by  the  re- 
quirements of  health  and  of  comfort.  The  streets  have  been 
said,  with  justice,  to  be  the  reservoirs  whence  we  are  supplied 
with  fresh  air,  and  if  it  be  impure  in  them,  it  is  impure  every- 
where. It  is  not  endugh  to  prevent  the  access  of  foul  air  from 
untrapped  and  unwashed  drains,  but  also  from  surface  filth, 
and  the  remains  of  any  kind  accumulated  in  the  streets. 
Further,  continues  the  writer  who  makes  these  remarks,  Mr. 
P.  H.  Holland,  of  Manchester,  dirty  streets  cause  dirty 
houses,  dirty  clothes,  dirty  persons  ;  every  one  walking  in 
them  in  wet  weather  carries  into  his  house  some  portion  of 
dirt,  to  increase  the  difficulty  of  domestic  cleanliness.  In 
dry  weather  the  same  effect  is  perhaps  more  powerfully  pro- 
duced by  constant  clouds  of  dust. 

Economy  of  Street  Cleaning. — The  great  obstacle  to  in- 
creased cleanliness  of  the  streets,  is  the  expense  of  frequent 
scavengering.  Mechanical  ingenuity  has,  within  a  few  years 
past,  obviated,  in  a  considerable  degree,  this  objection.  Mr. 
Whitworth,  the  celebtated  mechanic  of  Manchester,  has  per- 
fected a  sweeping  machine,  by  means  of  which  he  is  enabled 
to  sweep. the  streets  of  that  town  three  times  as  often  as  they 
used  to  be  by  hand,  and  at  the  same  cost.  In  Birmingham, 
Leeds,  London,  and  several  other  places,  this  machine  has 
likewise  been  worked  with  success.  In  Liverpool,  from  some 
unexplained  cause,  it  has  not  given  equal  satisfaction- 


38 


The  expense  of  cleaning  the  streets  and  ash-bins,  &c.,  is 
balanced  by  the  sale  of  ashes  and  dust  by  the  parishes  of 
London.  The  experience  of  Edinburgh  shows  that,  under 
proper  officers,  the  daily  cleaning  of  the  city,  and  of  its 
numerous  courts  and  closes,  is  attainable  at  the  moderate 
expense  of  ten  thousand  dollars  a  year.  In  Aberdeen,  the 
work  is  done  daily,  at  a  profit  to  the  city  of  a  sum  equal  to 
three  thousand  dollars.  In  Hull,  they  have  discovered  that 
they  can  readily  dispose  of  to  small  farmers — who  find  it  their 
interest  to  collect  it — the  refuse  from  the  houses,  even  in  the 
courts  and  alleys,  which  are  inaccessible  to  carts.  Small 
streets,  as  well  as  courts  and  alleys,  are  apt  to  be  neglected 
by  the  scavengers,  and  if  any  of  these  be  unpaved,  stagnant 
puddles  are  the  consequence,  and  the  atmosphere,  necessarily 
close  and  confined  in  such  spots,  becomes  still  further  deteri- 
orated by  the  accumulations  of  refuse  and  filth,  not  to  speak 
of  the  presence  of  open  privies. 

Sewered  and  Unsewered  Districts  compared. — In  con- 
trasting the  effects  on  the  health  of  the  inhabitants  of  sewered 
with  unsewered  districts  in  the  same  town,  we  are  met  by  the 
remarkable  example  of  Ashton-under-Lyne  in  England,  in 
which  the  duration  of  life  is  six  years  more  in  the  former  than 
in  the  latter  portions.  Equally  marked  results  have  been  ob- 
tained from  the  sanitary  records  of  Chorlton,  a  township  of 
Manchester.  While  the  mortality  in  the  undrained  streets 
amounts  to  four  per  cent.,  in  the  drained  districts  it  is 
only  two  per  cent.  ;  and  that  we  do  not  overrate  the  influence 
of  drainage,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  some  streets  containing 
3500  inhabitants,  and  exhibiting  a  mortality  of  1  in  32  of 
the  population,  were  elevated  immediately  after  having  ob- 
tained the  benefit  of  sewerage  to  such  a  scale  of  health,  that 
the  deaths  decreased  to  1  in  50,  or  in  other  words,  the  deaths 
were  diminished  20  a  year  out  of  every  110,  even  as  a  first 
effect  of  putting  the  streets  in  a  proper  condition  as  to  sewer- 


39 


age.  Other  districts  of  Manchester  give  the  same  instructive 
lesson.  In  Liverpool  it  was  ascertained  that  although  the 
high  mortality  of  5.4  per  cent,  occurred  in  both  sets  of  courts 
in  that  city,  yet  that  more  than  22  persons  in  every  100  of 
the  undrained  courts  had  serious  cases  of  illness,  while  only 
10  in  100  suffered  in  the  same  way  in  the  drained  districts. 
The  sanitary  history  of  every  city  contains  evidence  of  the 
improvement  of  the  public  health  following  a  good  system  of 
sewerage.  Proof  is  also  furnished  in  the  contrast  offered  be- 
tween the  preferred  and  fashionable  streets  as  we  now  find 
them,  and  the  same  spots  before  they  had  the  benefit  of  pav- 
ing and  sewerage.  In  London,  the  west  end  of  the  city,  and 
Westminster,  the  seats  of  the  residences  of  the  nobility,  and 
where  are  found  the  courts  of  law  and  the  two  hous.es  of  Par- 
liament, were  once  extensive  marshes,  nearly  uninhabitable 
on  account  of  the  fevers  which  annually  prevailed  there.  In 
Paris  a  regular  system  of  sewerage  has  converted  sickly  and 
almost  abandoned  districts  into  those  now  known  as  the 
Faubourg  Montmartre,  the  Chausse  d'Antin,  and  the 
Faubourg  St.  Honore,  which  are  remarkable  for  the  busi- 
ness transacted  in  them,  and  the  wealth  of  their  inhabitants. 
Rotherhithe,  a  district  of  London,  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Thames,  has  been  the  favorite  haunt  of  the  cholera  in  suc- 
cessive periods  of  appearance  of  that  disease  from  1831-2  to 
1854.  Its  sewerage  was  deplorably  defective,  being  by  open 
sewers  connected  with  the  river.  Malignant  cholera  spread 
to  a  much  greater  extent  on  the  line  of  open  sewers  than  in 
the  other  poor  and  densely  inhabited  places.  In  other  dis- 
tricts, we  are  told  that  the  line  of  habitations,  badly  cleansed 
and  suffering  from  defective  drainage,  formed  the  line  of 
cholera  cases  in  1831-2.  The  reports  of  the  medical  in- 
spectors, appointed  by  the  Board  of  Health  in  London,  in 
1854,  concur  in  showing  that  wherever  cholera  has  become 
localized,  it  was  found  to  be  connected  with  obvious  remov- 


40 

able  causes.  Of  these,  the  principal  were  the  open  ditches 
used  in  most  instances  as  sewers,  or  receptacles  of  all  descrip- 
tions of  filth,  and  receiving  the  drainage  of  numerous  privies. 
Generally  speaking,  the  mortality  from  cholera  was  greatest 
in  the-  lowest  levels,  owing,  as  may  readily  be  supposed,  to 
their  imperfect  drainage,  and  consequently  to  the  greater 
humidity  and  impurity  of  the  air  of  such  places.  The  ad- 
vantages that  might  be  expected  from  greater  elevation  are 
lost  however,  by  defective  or  inefficient  drainage,  as  in  the  in* 
stance  of  the  district  of  Kensal,  in  the  parish  of  Chelsea,  near 
London,  if  not  now  an  integral  part  of  the  metropolis.  This  dis- 
trict, with  the  advantage  of  having  at  least  50  feet  higher  eleva- 
tion than  the  rest  of  the  parish,  and  an  open  airy  situation,  had 
a  death-rate  from  epidemic  disease,  principally  diarrhoea,  nearly 
double  that  of  any  other  district  in  the  parish ;  although  if  we 
exclude  epidemic  disease,  it  is  actually  the  healthiest  of  the 
Chelsea  districts.  The  defective  sanitary  arrangement,  on 
which  this  state  of  things  depends,  is  described  by  Dr. 
Barclay,  Medical  Officer  of  Health  for  Chelsea,  to  be  inefficient 
drainage,  fecal  fermentation,  and  the  impregnation  of  the  at- 
mosphere with  unwholesome  emanations  from  foul  drains, 
ditches,  and  cess-pools.  It  has  been  said  that  the  course  of 
Typhoid  Fever  in  a  town  may  be  tracked  by  that  of  neglectod 
sewerage.  In  Croydon,  a  town  not  far  from  London,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  new  but  badly  constructed  system  of  drainage, 
there  occurred  "an  alarming  outbreak  of  Fever,  (Typhoid), 
Diarrhoea,  and  Dysentery."  And  the  relator,  Dr.  Letheby, 
adds,  that  Dr.  Carpenter,  of  that  town,  informed  him  "that 
even  now  he  can  tell  where  the  pipes  are  stopped,  by  the  oc- 
currence of  Diarrhoea  or  Fever  in  the  houses  through  which 
the  foul  gases  are  forced."  Typhoid  Fever  has  been  repre- 
presented  to  be  a  better  test  than  even  Diarrhoea  of  the 
sanitary  state  of  a  town. 

The  unhealthiness  of  an  urban  or  suburban  district,  and  its 


41 

liability  to  visitations  of  Fevers  and  Cholera,  depend  in  no  small 
degree  on  its  low  situation  and  its  proximity  to  river-banks, 
or  to  stagnant  water,  and  too  commonly  still  on  its  imperfect 
drainage.  It  was  said,  in  reference  to  the  intimate  rela- 
tions between  the  activity  of  the  disease,  and  the  proximity 
of  the  river  Thames,  that  two  causes  are  at  work  in  such  a 
locality.  First,  increased  humidity,  and,  secondly,  and  more 
especially,  the  large  evaporating  surface  of  foul  water,  by 
which  noxious  effluvia  are  continually  given  off,  and  poison, 
to  a  certain  extent,  the  atmosphere  through  which  they  are 
diffused.  On  this  point,  the  language  held  by  Dr.  Grainger, 
will  properly  find  a  place  on  the  present  occasion:  "  It  is  almost 
needless  to  point  out,"  writes  this  gentleman,  "that  when  the 
numerous  sewers  of  a  city  reach  the  stream,  one  part  of  their 
contents  widely  mingling  with  a  large  body  of  water,  under- 
goes solution,  and  thus  presents  a  physical  condition  favorable 
to  their  subsequent  escape  into  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of 
mephitic  gases  ;  whilst  other  portions,  owing  to  the  diminish- 
ed velocity,  sink  to  the  bottom,  near  the  edge  of  the  river, 
and  thus  become  deposited  on  the  banks  of  putrid  mud,  which 
will  at  the  next  tide,  being  laid  bare  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and 
air,  exhale  poisonous  effluvia."  This  writer  adds,  that  some 
facts  came  to  his  knowledge,  showing  that  it  is  precisely  in 
those  spots  at  the  stream,  which  receive  the  principal  body  of 
sewerage,  that  Cholera  especially  ravages  the  population.  We 
may  add  that  it  was  so  at  Hamburg  and  at  Berlin,  in  the 
latter  of  which  cities  open  drains  emptying  their  contents  into 
the  sluggish  Spree,  would  be  productive  of  still  greater  mis- 
chief. In  Paris,  the  evils  from  this  cause  have  been  felt,  and 
suggestions  were  made  some  years  ago,  and  h#ve  been  in  a 
measure  carried  out,  to  construct  two  great  tunnel  sewers,  one 
on  each  side  of  the  Seine,  to  receive  and  transmit  to  some  dis- 
tance below  the  city  all  the  sewerage  of  the  different  branch- 
sewers.  A  similar  project  is  now  discussed  in  London,  so 


42 

that  the  Thames  may  cease  to  Tbe,  as  it  has  been  for  a  long 
time  past,  the  great  common  and  open  sewer  of  the  metropolis. 
In  Philadelphia  and  New  York,  reforms  are  called  for  in  this 
matter,  so  that  the  mouths  of  the  sewers,  which  discharge 
their  contents  into  the  rivers  of  these  two  cities,  shall  not  be 
exposed  at  low  tide,  and  give  out  poisonous  effluvia,  'which 
either  directly  generate  malignant  Fevers,  or  serve  as  exciting 
causes  on  organisms  predisposed  by  atmospherical  extremes, 
such  as  high  heat  and  humidity.  Without  involving  ourselves 
in  doctrinal  questions  as  to  the  origin  of  Yellow  Fever,  we  are 
sure  of  receiving,  from  all  quarters,  the  admission  of  the  gene- 
ral sameness  of  the  localities  of  this  disease,  and  that  these  are 
distinguished  by  their  consisting,  for  the  most  part,  of  alluvial 
and  made  soil,  and  by  their  being  deficient  in  suitable  drainage 
and  analogous  means  of  preserving  the  surface  dry  and  clear  of 
accumulations  of  filth  and  the  like  decomposed  organic  re- 
mains What  is  said  of  the  Yellow  Fever  in  New  Orleans 
will  apply  to  other  places  in  which  it  has  committed  its  worst 
ravages,  viz.,  that  it  attacks,  generally,  at  first,  the  most  sus- 
ceptible, who  live  in  the  filthiest,  worst-drained  and  paved, 
and  worst-ventilated,  and  most  crowded  portions  of  the  city. 
In  Philadelphia,  invariably  from  the  first  visitation  of  the 
Yellow  Fever  in  1699,  to  the  last  slight  one  in  1853,  the  his- 
tory of  the  origin  of  the  first  appearance  of  the  Fever  is  told  in 
nearly  the  same  language,  viz.,  in  Dock  street,  near  the  draw- 
bridge, the  former  mouth  of  Dock  Creek,  in  different  parts  of 
Water  street,  or  at  the  water-side,  or  on  one  of  the  wharves, 
between  Kensington  on  the  north,  and  Southwark  on  the  south 
end  of  the  city.  In  1699  it  broke  out  in  the  vicinity  of  the  dock 
at  the  end  of  Spruce  street ;  and  in  1853  on  or  near  the  wharf 
at  the  Delaware  corner  of  South  street — the  two  spots  being  less 
than  three  hundred  yards  apart.  Near  the  latter  of  the  two, 
the  mouth  of  a  large  sewer  was  exposed  at  low  tide,  and  the 
emanations  from  its  imperfectly  discharged  contents  left  to 


43      . 

poison  the  air  around.  In  New  York,  a  still  worse  state  of 
things  prevails,  not  only  from  the  same  cause,  but  from  the 
slips  and  docks,  especially  on  the  East  River,  being  made  the 
receptacles  for  all  kinds  of  offal  and  refuse,  thrown  into  them 
from  the  wharves  and  the  vessels. 

SEWAGE  AND  SEWER  GASES. — The  virulent  and  actively 
poisonous  nature  of  the  emanations  from  sewage,  whether  at 
the  terminations  of  the  sewers  left  exposed  in  the  manner 
now  described,  or  in  the  course  of  its  passage  under  the 
streets  of  a  city,  from  gully-holes  or  leaks  in  the  public  sewers, 
as  well  as  in  the  private  drains  leading  into  these  latter,  have 
been  investigated  with  considerable  care  of  late  years  both  in 
London  and  Paris.     In  the  British  metropolis,  Drs.  Barker 
and  Letheby,  the  first  in  a  paper  in  the  Sanitary  Review  and 
Journal  of  Public  Health,  Vol.  IV.,  the  second  in  a  Report 
to  the   Commissioners  of  Sewers  of  the    City  of  London, 
have  entered  very  fully  and  ably  into  the  subject.     Dr.  Bar- 
ker instituted  a  number  of  experiments  on  animals,  with  a 
view  of  showing  the  toxical  effects  of  the   chief  gases  in 
sewer  emanations,  viz.,  carbonic  acid,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
and  ammonia,  or  rather  sulphide  of  ammonium.     A  mouse, 
exposed  in  a  cage  to  the  air  of  a  cess-pool,  within  three  inches 
of  the  surface,  although  it  was  well  fed  at  intervals,  died  on 
the  fifth  day.     Dogs  thus  exposed  suffered  from  vomiting, 
diarrhoea,   and  febrile  symptoms,  rigors,  restlessness,  thirst, 
and  loss  of  appetite.     The  gases  above  named  were  then  ex- 
perimented with  separately.     A  puppy,  exposed  to  less  than 
two  per  cent,  of  sulpheretted   hydrogen  in  the  common  air, 
was  destroyed  in  two  minutes  and  a  half,  without  a  struggle, 
and  so  small  a  proportion  as  0.428  per  cent,  killed  another 
in  an  hour.     A  dog,  exposed  to  0.205  per  cent,  of  this  gas, 
was  affected  within  a  minute  by  tremors,  and  fell  on  his  side. 
The  action  of  the  heart  became  irregular,  and  within  four 


44 

minutes  the  respiration  had  apparently  ceased,  but  after 
awhile  was  renewed.  After  one  hour  and  thirty-eight  minutes 
the  dog  was  removed  from  the  box  containing  air  mixed  with 
sulpheretted  hydrogen  as  above.  The  respirations,  which  had, 
previously,  at  one  time — three  quarters  of  an  hour  from  the 
beginning  of  the  experiment — been  112  and  even  120  in  a 
minute,  became  suddently  stertorous,  as  in  apoplexy.  On 
the  removal  of  the  dog  the  respirations  were  stertorous,  the 
limbs  rigid,  and  the  head  was  drawn  backwards  :  the  animal 
died  nine  hours  and  thirty-eight  minutes  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  experiment.  A  second  dog,  similarly  exposed, 
suffered  at  first,  but  soon  revived,  and  at  the  end  of  five 
hours,  was  removed  without  exhibiting  any  morbid  effect. 
Another  was  attacked  with  tremblings  and  diarrhoea  after 
breathing  the  gas  ;  a  fourth  with  all  the  appearances  of  in- 
toxication. Ammonia  and  its  salts  produced  what  Dr. 
Richardson,  in  his  Essay  on  the  Causes  and  Coagulation  of 
the  Blood,  considers  to  be  unmistakably  typhoid  symptoms. 
The  minute  quantity  of  0.056  per  cent,  or  56  parts  of  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen  in  a  thousand  of  common  air,  is  sufficient 
to  produce  serious  symptoms — eructations,  tremors,  rapid  and 
irregular  respiration,  extraordinary  rapidity  of  the  pulse,  and 
diarrhoea.  The  inhalation  of  carbonic  acid  in  small  propor- 
tions was  followed  by  diarrhoea.  Dr.  Barker  arrived  at  the 
following  conclusions,  which  may  be  received  as  a  fair  expres- 
sion of  the  facts : 

"  The  symptoms  which  have  been  noticed  as  resulting 
from  the  inhalation  of  sulpheretted  hydrogen,  sulphide  of  am- 
monium, and  carbonic  acid,  are  sufficient  to  account  for  the 
effects  arising  from  cess-pool  effluvia,  without  seeking  for  any 
further  product  from  such  emanations.  Comparing  the  expe- 
riments with  cess-pool  air  with  those  in  which  separate  gases 
were  employed,  the  inference  seems  clear  to  my  mind,  that 
the  symptoms  arising  from  the  inhalation  of  cess-pool  atmo- 


45 

sphere  were  due  mainly  to  the  presence  of  a  small  amount  of 
sulpheretted  hydrogen,  which  gas  was  always  present.  If  the 
experiments  with  the  cess-pool  air  be  placed  side  by  side  with 
those  in  which  sulpheretted  hydrogen,  in  the  proportion  of 
0.056  per  cent,  was  administered  by  inhalation,  the  analogy 
between  the  two  sets  of  results  will  be  sufficiently  un- 
mistakable." 

Before  inquiring  into  the  nature,  and  the  effects  on  the  animal 
economy  of  sewage  gases,  Dr.  Letheby  examines  the  nature 
of  sewage  itself — as  far  as  observed  by  this  writer,  in  reference 
to  what  is  met  with  in  England.  The  matters  to  be  dealt 
with  in  the  public  sewers  of  every  town  and  city  are  very  com- 
plex, for  they  are  composed  not  only  of  the  solid  and  liquid 
ejecta  of  the  population,  but  also  of  the  fluid  refuse  of  every 
branch  of  industry.  They  consist  of  the  filth  of  kitchens, 
laundries,  and  dye-houses;  the  drainings  from  stables,  slaughter- 
houses, and  the  public  markets  ;  the  various  liquid  impurities 
of  trade  and  manufactories  ;  and  the  washings  of  the  streets 
and  alleys  ;  all  of  which,  with  the  ejecta  of  the  inhabitants 
and  a  large  quantity  of  water,  compose  the  sewage  of  towns. 
In  Paris  and  the  French  towns  generally,  and  in  our  Ameri- 
can ones,  a  difference  prevails  in  their  sewage  from  that  of 
London  and  other  towns  in  England,  in  the  circumstance  of 
the  small  quantity  of  human  ejecta  which  is  conveyed  by 
private  sewers  into  the  public  ones  in  France  and  the  United 
States.  Altogether,  it  may  be  said,  that  the  ejecta  of  the 
inhabitants  of  London  and  the  washings  of  the  streets  daily, 
furnish  about  233  tons  of  solid  matter  to  the  sewage,  of 
which  152.6  tons  are  of  dry  matter,  and  293.6  of  moist,  and 
these  with  the  trade  refuse,  are  diluted  with  about  84f 
million  gallons  of  water.  It  has  been  estimated,  as  data  for 
part  of  the  preceding  calculations,  that  2  to  2^  ounces  of  dry- 
solid  matter  are  contained  in  the  excrements  per  diem  of 
each  member  of  the  population.  Another  mode  of  estimat- 


46 

ing  the  composition  of  sewerage  is  founded  on  the  analys 
tical  results  of  its  examination  at  different  times  and 
places.  These  show  that  the  sewage  discharge  by  day 
is  richer  in  solid  material  than  the  night  sewage  is ;  and 
that  there  are  considerable  differences  in  this  respect 
between  the  contents  of  sewers  situated  in  different  quar- 
ters of  the  city.  "  Taking  the  average  of  all  the  results 
obtained  in  the  examination  of  the  metropolitan  sewers,  it 
may  be  concluded  that  the  -sewage  which  flows  into  .the 
Thames  contains  about  90^-  grains  of  solid  matter  in  the  gal- 
lon ;  of  which  about  29f  are  suspended,  and  60^  dissolved: 
there  being  about  15  grains  of  organic  matter  in  each  of  these 
constituents."  "  The  mineral  constituents  of  sewer-water  are 
chiefly  carbonate  of  lime  and  common  salt,  with  small  pro- 
portions of  the  alkaline  sulphates  and  phosphates.  They  are 
derived  from  urine  and  from  the  water  supply.  The  mineral 
part  of  the  insoluble  matter  consists  almost  entirely  of  the 
debris  of  the  streets,  and  detritus  of  wheels  and  horse-shoes. 
Their  amount  is  about  15  grains  per  gallon;  which,  in  the 
aggregate,  is  as  near  as  possible  81  tons  per  day  for  the 
whole  of  the  metropolis,  or  19  for  the  city."  "Then,  of  the 
total  amount  of  485.5  tons  of  solid  matter  contained  in  the 
sewage  of  one  day,  about  152.60  tons  are  the  ejecta  of  the 
inhabitants  ;  81.08  tons  the  pulverized  granite  and  iron  on 
the  roads  ;  102.04  the,  saline  matter  contained  in  the  water 
supply;  and  the  residue,  152.78  tons,  is  from  trade  and 
manufactures.  The  total  amount  of  organic  matter  in  all 
this  is  about  215.14  tons  ;  of  which  half  is  in  a  state  of  solu- 
tion, and  the  rest  is  suspended. 

"  The  physical  properties  of  the  sewage  are  peculiar,  for 
when  it  is  examined  under  the  microscope,  it  is  found  that 
the  clear  supernatant  part  contains  a  large  quantity  of  amor- 
phus  organic  matter,  with  the  filaments  of  various  fungi.  It 
swarms  with  animal  life,  as  beaded  spirulina,  vibriones,  and 


47 

monads  ;  and  soon  after  exposure  to  air  the  higher  forms  of 
infusoria  appear,  as  paramecium,  vorticella,  rotifera,  &c. 
Besides  which  it  contains  small  particles  of  animal  and 
vegetable  tissues,  as  the  fibres  of  cotton,  wool,  &c."  "  The 
mineral  part  is  composed  of  the  debris  of  the  streets,  as 
particles  of  granite,  flint,  and  carbonate  of  lime,  with  a  large 
quantity  of  the  black  sulphuret  of  iron.  When  the  sewage 
has  a  very  unpleasant  odor,  and  is  charged  with  sulphureted 
hydrogen,  it  never  exhibits  much  sign  of  animal  or  vegetable 
life,  notwithstanding  that  it  contains  an  abundance  of  decay- 
ing organic  matter.  This  is  the  case  with  the  foul  contents 
of  the  nearly  stagnant  sewers." 

The  putrefactive  decomposition  of  sewage  is  noticed  by 
Dr.  Letheby.  Looking  at  the  enormous  quantity  of  organic 
matters  contained  in  sewage,  and  its  minute  subdivision, 
proportion  of  water,  and  temperature,  it  is  not  surprising  that 
its  decomposition  should  be  attended  with  the  evolution  of  a 
large  amount  of  noxious  gas,  or  that  it  should  at  once  take 
on  the  putrefactive  change,  and  begin  to  evolve  foul  gases, 
before  it  enters  the  sewers.  "  Under  ordinary  circumstances, 
the  solid  excrements  do  not  ferment  in  less  than  three  or  four 
days,  but  here  the  catalytic  influences  are  so  strong,  that 
putrefaction  begins  at  once,  and  it  is  always  of  the  same  kind 
as  that  already  in  progress  in  the  old  sewer  matter.  This 
tendency  to  accelerate  and  direct  the  decomposition  is  very 
remarkable.  Its  power  lasts  for  weeks  after  the  sewage  has 
ceased  to  ferment,  or  it  will  operate  immediately  in  all  kinds 
of  organic  substances.  Blood,  sugar,  feces,  urine,  and  other 
fermentable  bodies  are  rapidly  changed  by  it ;  and  they 
evolve  compounds  of  a  most  offensive  character.  Common 
sugar,  instead  of  being  fermented  into  alcohol,  is  converted 
into  lactic  acid,  which  smells  like  putrid  pig's-wash  ;  then  it 
passes  into  butyric  acid,  and  gives  hydrogen  and  carbonic 
acid,  with  the  odor  of  rancid  butter  and  human  perspiration." 


48 

Dr.  Letheby  points  out  the  important  part  which  the  oxygen 
of  the  atmospheric  air  performs  in  the  sewers,  by  giving  birth 
to  mineral  products,  as  water,  carbonic  acid,  the  sulphates, 
phosphates,  and  nitrates,  which  are  the  final  products  of 
decay.  "  Its  influence,  therefore,  is  most  salutary,  and  ought 
not  to  be  disregarded.  Experiment  has  also  shown  that  the 
oxydizing  power  of  the  air  is  promoted  by  water,  by  porous 
substances,  and  by  the  fixed  alkalies."  Dr.  Jj.  ascertained 
that  it  is  the  solid  part  of  the  sewerage  which  continues  to 
ferment  and  keep  up  the  putrefactive  action  for  months,  evolv- 
ing large  quantities  of  ammonia,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  marsh 
gas,  and  carbonic  acid.  It  is  the  sedimentary  matter  which 
is  the  chief  cause  of  the  effluvium,  and  to  this  the  writer  after- 
wards directs  attention. 

The  Nature  of  the  Sewer  Gases. — Dr.  Letheby  judiciously 
precedes  his  observations  on  this  subject  by  the  observation, 
that  little  can  be  really  done  in  the  way  of  providing  a 
remedy  for  the  sewer  miasms,  until  something  is  definitely 
known  of  their  nature  and  composition.  He  has  endeavored 
to  procure  the  knowledge  wanted,  by  three  sets  of  investiga- 
tions, viz.  :  "1.  From  inquiries  into  the  composition  of  the 
gases  dissolved  in  sewage;  2.  From  an  analysis  of  the 
gases  evolved  during  its  putrefaction ;  and  3.  From  an  ex- 
amination of  the  sewer  air  itself."  The  clear  liquid  of 
sewage,  when  heated,  evolves  all  the  gases  which  were  held 
in  solution.  These  consist  of  carbonic  acid,  sulphuretted  hy- 
drogen, ammonia,  marsh  gas  (carburetted  hydrogen),  and  nitro- 
gen. Their  quantity  varies  from  about  32  to  76  cubic  inches  per 
gallon ;  and  the  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  varies  from  36  to 
72  per  cent.  ;  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen  from  0.9  to  3.1.  A 
fact,  full  of  significance,  in  relation  to  the  condition  of  that 
river  in  its  course  through  London,  is  stated  here.  It  is,  that 
Thames  water,  near  to  the  shore  at  low  tide,  contains  the  same 


49 


>  v»,arly  the  same  proportion.  It  was  observed  that  these 
gase.5*  ire  abundantly  evolved  wherever  the  sewerage  becomes 
stagnant,  or  nearly  so.  From  the  thick  slushy  matter  in  one 
sewer  (that  of  Catharine-wheel  alley)  the  carburetted  hydro- 
gen, among  other  gases,  bubbled  up  in  such  quantities  that 
it  could  be  ignited  with  ease,  and  would  thus  set  fire  to  the 
neighboring  bubbles  and  produce  a  sheet  o£  flame  that  would 
extend  for  some  distance  along  the  surface  of  the  sewage. 
"  The  gas  contained  G3  per  cent,  of  inflammable  air  ;  17.6  of 
carbonic  acid  ;  14.1  of  nitrogen,  and  0.2  of  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. The  amount  of  ammonia  contained  in  the  liquid  of  sew- 
age is  also  considerable.  It  ranges  from  3  to  15  grains  in 
the  gallon  of  ordinary  sewage,  and  from  15  to  41  in  that  of 
nearly  stagnant  sewers.  In  addition  to  all  these,  there  are 
other  volalilc  compound3  which  have  not  yet  been  isolated  — 
compounds  which  give  to  the  sewage  its  peculiar  odor,  and 
which  Dr.  Leihcby  surmises  may  also  cause  its  poisonous  ac- 
tion. Looking  at  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Baker,  previously 
noticed,  we  may  doubt  the  necessity  of  searching  for  other 
and  unknown  toxical  agents  to  give  rise  to  morbid  phenome- 
na winch  are  already  strictly  ascribable  to  known  gases.  The 
English  writer  made  experiments  similar  to  those  performed 
thirty  years  ago  in  Paris  by  Gaultier  de  Claubry,  which  show 
the  great  diminution  of  oxygen,  the  increase  of  nitrogen, 
and  the  evolution  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  in  sewer  air.  He 
was  able  to  condense  the  organic  vapor  which  rose  from  the 
sewer  air,  as  had  been  done  by  the  French  commissioner  ap- 
pointed to  report  on  the  cleaning  and  purifying  of  the  public 
sewers  of  Paris,  at  the  time  just  mentioned,  and  of  which  Pa- 
rent-Duchatelet  was  a  member.  The  liquid  thus  obtained 
had  a  very  disagreeable  and  putrid  and  ammoniacal  odor,  like 
that  of  bad  sewage. 

On  the  subject  of  the  properties  of  the  sewage  gases  and 
their  ejects  on  the  animal  system,  we  gather  some  interesting 


50 


facts  from  Dr.  Letheby's  Report.  He  begins  with  sulphuret- 
ted hydrogen,  which  experiments,  performed  many  years  ago 
by  Dupuytren  and  Thenard,  show  to  be  eminently  poisonous, 
even  in  very 'minute  quantities.  Horses  are  killed  by  an  at- 
mosphere containing  one  part  of  it  in  250  of  the  air ;  but 
much  less  is  hurtful  if  it  be  breathed  for  any  length  of  time. 
It  is  on  record,  |hat  the  men  who  were  engaged  in  cutting 
through  the  bed  of  the  river,  for  the  construction  of  the 
Thames  tunnel,  suffered  severely  from  the  effects  of  the  gas, 
although  the  proportion  of  it  in  the  air  was  hardly  to  be  dis- 
covered by  lead  paper,  and  could  not,  therefore,  have  exceed- 
ed one  part  in  100,000.  It  is  true  that  it  sometimes  came  in 
gushes  from  the  fissures  of  the  mud,  but  the  quantity  was 
rarely  sufficient  to  be  recognizable  by  its  odor.  Strong  and 
robust  men  were,  however,  reduced  to  a  state  of  extreme  ex- 
haustion by  breathing  it  for  a  few  months,  and  several  of  them 
died  from  this  cause.  The  symptoms  with  which  they  were 
affected  were  giddiness,  nausea  or  actual  sickness  of  stomach, 
and  great  debility.  The  men  became  emaciated,  lost  their 
appetites,  and  fell  into  a  state  of  low  fever,  from  which,  in 
several  instances,  they  did  not  recover.  Chloride  of  lime  and 
other  prophylactics  were  used,  but  the  evil  did  not  entirely 
cease  until  the  tunnel  was  opened  from  end  to  end,  and  free 
ventilation  established.  Dr.  Taylor  mentions  another  remark- 
able instance  of  the  same  kind  of  poisoning,  which  occurred 
in  the  summer  of  1857,  at  Clayton  Moor,  near  Whitehaven, 
where  there  is  a  row  of  small  cottages  built  on  the  refuse  slag 
of  some  neighboring  iron  furnaces.  In  the  course  of  two 
days,  in  the  month  of  June,  thirty  of  the  inhabitants,  all  of 
whom  had  been  for  some  time  previously  annoyed  by  an  of- 
fensive smell,  were  made  seriously  ill  by  it.  In  a  family  of 
seven  persons,  consisting  of  a  husband  and  wife,  and  five 
children,  who  had  retired  to  rest  in  their  usual  health,  two 
were  found  dead  the  next  morning,  and  the  others  were  in  a 


state  of  insensibility.  "Before  the  day  was  over,  another  of 
them  died,  and  in  the  course  of  the  week  a  fourth.  In  the  se- 
cond case,  a  strong,  healthy  man  came  home  from  his  night- 
work,  and  went  to  bed  ;  but  an  hour  had  hardly  elapsed  when 
he  also  was  found  dead.  And  in  a  sixth  instance,  a  child 
was  taken  ill  in  the  morning  and  was  a  corpse  at  night."  In 
an  inquiry  instituted  on  the  occasion,  in  order  to  discover  the 
cause  of  the  mischief,  Dr.  Taylor  came  to  the  conclusion  that 
it  was  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  generated  by  the  action  of 
water  on  the  refuse  slag  upon  which  the  houses  were  built. 
If  the  explanation  be  a  correct  one,  the  case  is  a  remarkable 
instance  of  the  poisonous  action  of  this  gas,  for  the.  test  of  lead 
paper  failed  to  show  the  presence  of  the  poison  except  in  mere 
traces,  that  is,  in  quantities  which  could  not  have  been  great- 
er than  one  part  in  100,000  of  the  air.  "  These  experiments 
and  observations  show  that  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas  is  a 
powerful  narcotic  poison ;  that  in  a  concentrated  state  it  kills 
immediately,  as  with  the  energy  of  prussic  acid.  In  a  more 
dilute  form,  it  causes  death  by  lingering  stupor,  and  when 
more  diluted  still,  so  as  hardly  to  be  discovered  by  the  odor, 
it  prostrates  the  vital  powers,  and  produces  a  low  'fever,  which 
may  end  fatally." 

"  Carbonic  acid  is  also  produced  by  the  decay  of  organic 
matters.  It  is  found  in  the  air  of  sewers  to  the  extent  of  0.5 
to  2.3  per  cent.,  and  the  gases  evolved  from  the  sewage  itself 
contain  about  19  per  cent,  of  it.  If  the  gas  has  been  produced 
at  the  expense  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air,  as  happens  in  sewers 
and  crowded  rooms,  the  effects  are  more  strongly  marked,  for 
under  these  circumstances  as  little  as  three  per  cent,  will 
quickly  destroy  life,  and  even  the  proportion  of  from  1.5  to  2 
per  cent,  will  cause  almost  immediate  distress  and  feelings  of 
suffocation,  with  often  giddiness  and  headache,  and  a  sense  of 
weight  and  throbbing  of  the  temples.  This  is  sometimes  fol- 
lowed by  a  slight  delirium,  and  then  by  an  irresistible  desire 
to  sleep,  the  stupor  of  which  passes  slowly  into  coma." 


52 

Ammonia  is  anotner  constituent  of  the  sewer  air,  and  is  a 
product  of  putrefaction.     It  is  known  by  its  peculiar  odor 
and  alkaline  reaction.    It  is  lighter  than  the  common  air  in  the 
proportion  of  590  to  1000.      "  When  ammonia  is  inhaled  in 
a  concentrated  state,  it  produces  immediate  asphyxia ;  when 
it  is  somewhat  diluted  with  air,  its  action  is  chiefly  on  the 
lungs ;  and  when  it  is  more  diluted  still,  and  is  breathed  for 
a  considerable  time,  it  liquefies  the  corpuscles  of  the  blood, 
and  produces  the  symptoms  of  typhoid  fever."     These  ob- 
servations are  confirmed  by  Dr.  Barker's  experiments.     Dr. 
Richardson,  already  quoted,  in  the  same  sense,  finds,  from 
experiment,   that  the  continued  action  of  ammoniacal  gas, 
even  when  it  is  largely  diluted  with  air,  is  peculiarly  injuri- 
to  the  animal  economy :  the  tongue  becomes  dry  and  dark, 
there  is  an  involuntary  action  of  the  muscles,  varying  from 
mere  twitching  to  violent  convulsions  ;  there  are  insensibility, 
extreme  sensitiveness  to  sound,  obscurity  of  sight,   and  ulti- 
mately, if  matters  are  pushed  far  enough,  death  by  coma. 
The  state  of  the  organs  after  death  tends  to  the  same  conclu- 
sion.    The  blood  is  dark  and  fluid ;  the  serous  membranes 
show  petechial  spots,  and  the  tissues  are  softened.      "  But,;T 
adds  Dr.  Letheby,   "  there  is  another  property  of  ammonia 
which  is  more  dangerous  still  r  it  is  that  of  conveying  the  less 
volatile  products  of  putrefaction  into  the  air.     In  all  proba- 
bility it  is  the  purveyor  of  the  miasms  of  infected  districts, 
as  it  is  known  to  have  the  fetid  compounds  of  animal  and 
vegetable  decomposition.     It  wsu  the. agent  which  gave  valid- 
ity to  the  putridities  of  the  Thames  during  the  hot  weather, 
and  it  is  the  medium  by  which  the  more  offensive  matters  of 
coal  gas  are  held  in  suspension.     Nor  is  it  less  powerful  by 
by  diffusing  the  sweet  odors  of  plants  and  the  subtle  constitu- 
ents of  many  perfumes.     It  may,  therefore,  act  for  good  as 
well  as  for  evil. 

"  The  volatile  compounds  of  ammonia,  with  carbonic  acid 


53 

and  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  are  also  injurious.  The  first  act 
like  the  alkali  itself,  and  the  second  like  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen. I  have  found  that  one  part  of  hyposulphate  of  ammonia 
in  1000  of  air  will  kill  birds  almost  instantly,  and  one  in 
500  will  kill  rabbits." 

•'  Light  carburetted  hydrogen,  or  marsh  gas,  is  also  found 
in  the  atmo3pliere  of  sewers,  but  it  rarely  occurs  in  such  pro- 
portion as  to  be  dangerous  ;  now  and  then,  however,  it  accu- 
mulates, as  it  does  in  coal  mines,  and  becomes '  explosive." 
Miners  are  often  obliged  to  work  in  an  atmosphere  containing 
from  8  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  gas,  but  they  experience  no  ill 
effects  from  it,  until  the  proportion  rises  to  about  20  per  cent., 
and  then  they  feel  giddy,  with  a  sense  of  weight  upon  -the 
forehead 

"  Coal  gas  is  likewise  present  in  the  sewers;  it  is  not 
found  there,  but  escapes  from  the  street  mains.  The  quan- 
tity which  is  let  loose  in  this  manner  is  enormous  Gas  con- 
sumers say  that  from  12  to  35  per  cent,  of  all  the  gas  manu- 
factured in  London  is  lost.  Now  supposing  that  of  this,  the 
leakage  amounts  to  five  per  cent.,  which  my  friend,  Mr. 
Wright,  informs  me  is  about  the  quantity,  then  as  much  as 
386,400,000  cubic  feet  of  gas  escape  into  the  public  ways  of 
the  metropolis  every  year,  or  rather  more  than  a  million  cubic 
feet  every  day  ;  and  in  the  city  it  amounts  to  about  25,000,000 
cubic  feet  per  annum,  or  nearly  70,000  cubic  feet  per  day. 
Most  of  this  must  find  its  way  into  the  sewers,  and  therefore 
is  a  matter  of  some  importance.  The  chief  constituents  of 
coal  gas  are  hydrogen,  and  light  carburetted  hydrogen.  The 
former  amounts  to  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  gas,  and  the  latter 
to  45.  The  other  constituents  are  about  7  per  cent,  of  car- 
bonic oxide,  2  of  nitrogen,  1  of  carbonic  acid,  and  5  of  the 
condensable  hydrocarbons,  besides  which,  there  are  always 
traces  of  ammonia,  bisulphuret  of  carbon,  and  coal  tar.  The 
principal  danger  from  this  gas  is  its  inflammability,  and  ita 


54 


property  of  forming  an  explosive  mixture  with  atmospheric 
air."  "  Dr.  Taylor  has  attested  the  record  of  seven  cases  of 
death  from  the  action  of  coal  gas,  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
air  was  not  charged  with  more  than  8  or  9  per  cent,  of  it  in 
any  one  of  them." 

Dr.  Letheby  cannot  speak  with  certainty  of  the  organic 
vapor  which  is  contained  in  sewer  gases,  "  except  that  it  is  a 
matter  in  a  state  of  active  decomposition  ;  and  experience  has 
long  since  decided  that  matter  in  this  condition  has  power  to 
disturb  the  equilibrium  "of  other  organic  molecules,  and  to 
propagate  to  them  its  own  state  of  decay.  When  this  occurs 
in  the  living  animal  body,  it  is  productive  of  the  most  terrible 
consequences.  Our  ignorance  of  the  nature  of  this  organic 
vapor  is  not  surprising,  when  we^onsider  that  we  are  equally 
uninformed  of  the  composition  of  the  subtle  miasms  and  pu- 
tridities which  abound  in  the  air  of  infected  districts,  and  in 
the  vapors  of  organic  decomposition."  "  Sometimes  these 
miasms  are  colorless,  but  in  the  case  of  the  sewer  gases,  it  is 
the  organic  vapor  which  gives  them  their  peculiar  smell,  for 
when  the  sulpheretted  hydrogen  is  entirely  removed,  there  are 
still  the  characteristic  stinks  which  have  been  so  accurately 
described  by  Parent-  Duchatelet." 

*•  What  are  the  dangers  of  the  Complex  Sewer  Gases 
themselves  f  Experience  has  shown  that  they  are  of  two 
kinds,  namely  -.  the  dangers  which  are  incidental  to  the  poi- 
sonous action  of  the  gases  ;  and  those  which  arise  from  their 
explosive  property."  Observation  has  proved  that  these 
gases  are  among  the  most  active  poisons.  Passing  over  a 
description  of  the  acute  forms  of  poisoning  by  them  when  in- 
haled in  their  undiluted  state,  it,  may  be  stated,  as  most  ger- 
man  to  the  present  inquiry,  that  when  these  gases  are  much 
diluted  with  atmospheric  air,  they  produce  a  general  prostra- 
tion of  the  vital  powers.  "  The  appetite  fails ;  the  bowels 
become  disturbed ;  diarrhoea  of  a  chronic  character  sets  in ; 


55 

and  the  sufferer  is  either  worn  out  by  exhaustion,  or  he  falls 
into  a  state  of  low  fever,  from  which  it  is  difficult  to  raise 
him." 

Dr.  Letheby  gives  additional  point  to  this  part  of  the  sub- 
ject by  mentioning  a  few  cases  of  chronic  poisoning  in  which 
the  effects  were  produced  by  the  inhalation  of  very  small  quan 
tities  of  sewer  miasm.  We  cannot  forbear  from  repeating  his 
narrative,  under  a  belief  of  their  extreme  appositeness  to  the 
immediate  purposes  of  this  report,  and  for  the  lessons  of  cau- 
tion which  they  furnish.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  instances 
of  this  is  recorded  by  M.  D'Arcet.  He  states  that  there  was 
a  small  lodging  in  Paris,  consisting  of  a  bed-room  and  ante- 
room, which  had  been  successively  tenanted  by  three  vigor- 
ous young  men,  each  of  whom  died  within  a  few  months  of 
his  occupying  the  place.  D'Arcet  was  requested  to  exam- 
ine the  rooms,  and  ascertain  the  cause  of  the  evil.  He  found 
that  a  pipe  from  a  privy  in  the  upper  floor  ran  down  by  the 
side  of  the  wall  near  to  the  head  of  the  bed  where  the  inmates 
slept.  The  pipe  was  unsound,  and  the  wall  was  damp  from 
leakage  of  the  soil  into  it ;  but  there  was  no  perceptible  smell 
in  the  room  when  D'Arcet  examined  it ;  nevertheless  he 
had  no  doubt  that  the  deaths  of  the  former  occupants 
were  referable  to  the  emanations  from  the  wall.  The 
pipe  was  therefore  repaired,  and  from  that  time  the  un- 
wholesomeness  of  the  place  was  cured.  Again,  in  August, 
1831,  twenty-two  boys  living  at  a  boarding-school  in  Clap- 
ham,  near  London,  were  suddenly  seized  with  alarming 
symptoms  of  irritation  of  the  stomach  and  bowels,  with 
twitchings  of  the  muscles  of  the  arms  and  excessive  prostra- 
tion of  strength.  Another  boy  had  been  similarly  attacked 
three  days  before,  and  he  died  in  twenty-five  hours ;  one  of 
the  others  died  in  twenty-three  hours.  A  suspicion  of  acci- 
dental poisoning  naturally  arose,  and  the  various  utensils  and 
articles  of  food  used  by  the  family  were  examined,  but  nothing 


56 


of  a  deleterious  nature  was  found.  The  only  circumstance 
which  appeared  to  explain  the  accident  was,  that  two  days 
before  the  first  child  was  taken  ill,  a  foul  cess-pool  had  been 
opened,  and  the  matter  of  it  diffused  over  a  garden  adjoining 
to  the  children's  play-ground.  This  was  considered  to  be  the 
cause  of  the  disease,  and  the  opinion  was  formed  not  only  by 
the  medical  attendants,  but  also  by  Drs.  Latham,  Chambers, 
and  Pearson,  who  personally  examined  the  whole  of  the  par- 
ticulars. The  third  instance  to  which  I  shall  refer  is  of  more 
recent  date,  and  has  been  a  subject  of  considerable  discussion. 
In  the  month  of  August,  1852,  an  attempt  was  made  to  drain 
the  town  of  Croydon  by  means  of  small  stoneware  pipes, 
which  were  not  only  of  insufficient  size,  but  were  imperfectly 
cemented  together.  The  consequence  was,  that  a  large  quan- 
tity of  the  sewage  escaped  into  the  earth,  and  drained  away 
to  the  neighboring  ditches.  This  became  a  subject  of  great 
annoyance,  and  in  a  short  time  it  produced  an  alarming  out- 
break of  Fever,  Diarrhoea,  and  Dysentry.  In  the  report  from 
the  Poor  Law  Commissioners  on  the  sanitary  condition  of  the 
laboring  population  of  Great  Britain,  there  are  many  examples 
of  the  morbific  action  of  sewer  and  cess-pool  gases.  There  is 
one  case  which  is  remarkable  for  its  significance.  "  On  the 
north  side  of  a  street  in  Derby  there  are  fifty-four  houses,  all 
of  the  same  description,  and  inhabited  by  the  same  class  of 
persons.  Six  of  these  houses  in  the  very  centre  of  the  row 
became  the  abodes  of  fever,  and  of  sixteen  persons  attacked 
with  the  disease,  five  died.  The  fever  was  nowhere  ebe  in 
the  row,  and  on  inquiry  it  was  found  that  these,  and  these 
only,  were  exposed  to  the  action  of  sewer  gases,  and  the  miasms 
from  cess-pool  matter  which  had  soaked  into  the  soil." 

It  is  impossible  to  carry  the  observations  and  experiments 
of  Drs.  Barker  and  Letheby  in  our  minds  without  our  com- 
prehending the  noxious  agencies  by  which  obstinate  and  often 
fatal  diseases  of  the  digestive  organs,  and  low  fevers,  are  pro- 


duced  in  those  parts  of  a  town  where  the  inhabitants  are 
continually  exposed  to  the  operation  of  the  gases  above 
mentioned.  These  arise  from  vegetable  and  animal  matter  in 
decay  and  decomposition,  from  obstructed  gutters,  open  drains, 
or  from  cess-pools,  and  the  mouths  and  gully-holes  of  sewersr 
and  accidental  openings  in  these  latter.  Even  when  not  di- 
rectly poisoned  by  the  continued  inhalation  of  a  corrupt 
atmosphere  always  charged  with  these  gaseous  poisons,  the 
people  thus  exposed  acquire  such  a  predisposition — have  their 
vital  'energies  so  much  reduced — are  primed  as  it  were — that 
a  slight  change  in  the  ordinary  conditions  of  the  atmosphere, 
or  diminution  of  their  accustomed  food,  serves  as  a  spark  to 
ignite  into  febrile  fire  their  weakened  and  susceptible  frames. 
On  the  means  of  remedying  the  sewer  miasms,  or  of  pre- 
venting the  offensive  and  toxical  effects  of  the  emanations 
from  sewers,  we  cannot  do  better  than  introduce  that  portion 
of  Dr.  Lelheby's  report,  the  title*  of  which  was  furnished  in  a 
preceding  page.  His  manner  of  treating  the  subject  gives  it  a 
freshness  and  value  that  cannot  fail  to  be  acceptable  even 
after  the  interesting  report  of  Dr.  Van  Bibber.  At  any  rate, 
coming  directly  in  our  line  of  practical  precept  in  all  that  re- 
lates to  sewerage  and  sewage,  we  have  not  hesitated  to  apply 
it  to  our  own  purposes. 

"THE  REMEDY  FOR  THE  SEWER  MIASMS. — This  is  the  great 
question  which  you  have  submitted  to  me  for  consideration,  and 
the  preceding  facts  show  clearly  enough  that  it  is  an  important 
question.  I  am  far  from  thinking,  with  your  engineer,  that  the 
mischief  occasioned  by  sewer  gases  is  not  of  such  magnitude  as  to 
be  worth  a  remedy  that  may  cost  sixpence  a  head  to  the  popula- 
tion ;  nor  do  I  believe  that  if  you  had  temporized  with  the  matter, 
and  had  yielded  to  the  demand  on  the  part  of  the  public,  to  close 
up  the  ventilating  gratings,  which  are'  now  so  offensive,  and  had 
thus  turned  the  foul  gases  into  the  house-drains,  the  nuisance  would 
have  been  regarded  simply  as  a  domestic  evil,  for  which  the  cure 


58 


was  to  be  sought  privately  and  individually  by  those  who  felt  the 
annoyance  ;  in  fact,  such  a  proceeding  would  have  been  unworthy 
of  the  trust  which  is  reposed  in  you  as  the  custodians  of  the  public 
health,  for  it  would  have  been  a  matter  of  life  or  death  to-  the 
great  bulk  of  the  community. 

"  At  all  times  attempts  have  been  made  to  destroy  or  neutralize 
the  offensive  products  of  decomposition  ;  and  the  simplest  way  of 
doing  it  has  been  by  the  use  of  another  secret — a  perfume  of  vola- 
tile oil,  which  would  cover  or  mask  the  offensive  body.  These 
were  the  correctives  employed  in  religious  worship.  They  entered 
into  the  composition  of  the  ointments  of  the  high  priest  and  the  in- 
cense of  the  altar,  and  to  this  day  they  have  enjoyed  a  reputation 
and  general  popularity  which  they  have  not  deserved,  for  their 
action  is  not  on  the  putrid  product,  but  merely  on  the  sense  of 
smell,  which  they  blunt  to  the  action  of  the  offensive  vapor.  In  the 
middle  ages,  when  the  plague,  the  black  death,  and  sweating  sick- 
ness, and  pestilential  fever  desolated  the  cities  of  Europe,  immense 
importance  was  attached  to  th$  use  of  perfumes  ;  fumigations,  with 
costly  spice  and  rich-smelling  Oriental  drugs,  were  largely  used  in 
the  houses  of  the  rich,  but  with  no  good  effect.  The  ancients  also 
knew  the  value  of  fire  as  a  disinfectant ;  and  they  also  made  use  of 
the  fumes  of  burning  sulphur. 

"But  the  right  knowledge  of  the  action  of  disinfectants  and 
deodorizers  dates  from  a  very  recent  period,  for  so  late  as  the  year 
1773,  Guyton  Morveau,  one  of  the  best- chemists  of  France,  thought 
that  the  vapors  of  muriatic  acid  were  the  most  powerful  of  dis- 
infectants; and  later  still,  in  the  year  1803,  Dr.  Carmichael  Smith 
obtained  a  grant  of  £5000  from  Parliament,  for  a  suggestion  which 
is  nearly  valueless,  namely,  the  employment  of  the  fumes  of  nitrous 
acid.  Chlorine  gas  was  discovered  by  Scheele  in  1774,  and  soon 
afterwards  its  disinfecting  properties  were  noticed  by  Berthollet, 
but  its  use  cannot  be  dated  farther  back  than  the  present  century, 
when  Guyton  Morveau  and  Dupuytren  first  pointed  out  the  great 
value  of  it  as  a  disinfectant ;  and  even  then  it  was  not  generally 
employed;  in  fact,  its  present  popularity  dates  only  from  the  time 
that  chloride  of  lime  has  been  largely  manufactured  for  bleaching 
purposes.  Within  the  last  twenty  years  almost  all  the  refuse 


59 

products  of  the  arts,  and  a  great  number  of  special  compounds,  have 
been  recommended  for  the  deodorization  of  sewage,  &c.  They  all 
act  in  one  of  two  ways ;  they  either  give  stability  to  the  organic 
matter,  and  so  check  its  tendency  to  decay,  or  they  operate  on  the 
putrid  vapors,  and  destroy  their  offensive  properties.  This  they 
do,  either  by  fixing  the  effluvium,  and  forming  compounds  which 
are  inert,  or  by  breaking  up  the  putrid  molecule  and  changing  its 
nature,  or  by  expediting  the  process  of  decay,  and  hurrying  it  on 
to  the  last  stage  of  oxydation. 

"  Those  substances  which  give  stability  to  organic  matter  are 
properly  called  anti-septics  or  anti-putrescents.  They  have  always 
been  more  popular  than  any  of  the  second  class  of  deodorizers,  be- 
cause of  their  importance  in  the  arts.  Salt,  sugar,  vinegar, 
creosote,  and  the  empyreumatic  oils  of  wood,  peat,  coal,  &c.,  are 
examples  of  this  class.  So  also  are  chloride  of  zinc,  sulphate  of 
copper,  and  corrosive  sublimate,  substances  which  have  been  re- 
spectively patented  by  Sir  William  Burnett,  Mr.  Margary,  and 
Mr.  Kyan.  Alum  and  the  astringent  matter  of  many  vegetables 
have  likewise  been  used  for  ages  as  the  means  of  preserving  gela- 
tinous tissues  in  the  form  of  leather.  None  of  these,  however, 
except  the  chloride  of  zinc,  is  applicable  to  the  case  before  us,  and 
that  operates  more  as  a  deodorizer  than  an  anti-putrescent.  In 
fact,  as  I  have  already  stated,  the  matters  of  sewage  are  always  in  a 
state  of  decomposition,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  treated  with  much 
advantage,  unless  the  anti-septics  are  applied  to  them  before  they 
enter  the  sewers ;  and  this,  I  need  not  say.  is  altogether  impracti- 
cable. Even  in  Paris,  where  there  are  special  contrivances  for 
such  a  purpose,  it  fails,  because  of  its  utter  impracticability. 

"  Of  the  second  class  of  substances,  namely,  the  deodorizers  and 
disinfectants,  there  are  many  which  deserve  notice. 

"  Those  which  combine  with  the  putrid  gases  and  fix  them  into 
involatile  form,  are  the  metallic  oxyds  and  their  salts,  as  chloride 
and  sulphate  of  zinc;  acetate  and  nitrate  of  lea<J;  sulphate, 
muriate  and  pyrolignate  of  iron  ;  impure  muriate  of  manganese ; 
the  refuse  of  bleaching  works  ;  common  alum  ;  the  fixed  alkalies  ; 
and  the  salts  of  lime  and  magnesia.  Most  of  these  compounds 
unite  with  sulpheretted  hydrogen  and  ammonia  of  sewage,  and  so 


60 

far,  therefore,  they  remove  the  unpleasant  smell  of  it,  but  they  do 
not  touch  the  organic  vapors.  Besides  which,  they  arc  difficult  to 
apply,  and  are  very  costly.  In  fact,  putting  aside  all  the  working 
expenses  that  would  attend  their  use,  the  mere  cost  of  the  deodor- 
izers alone  would  range  from  £20,000  to  upwards  of  £1,000,000 
per  annum  for  the  city  sewage,  and  from  £1,000,000  sterling  to 
£48,000,000  for  the  sewage  of  the  whole  of  London.  This, 
together  with  the  insufficiency  of  their  power  as  deodorizers,  and 
the  difficulty  of  applying  them  while  the  sewage  is  within  the 
sewer,  deprives  them  of  all  practical  utility.  That  power  which 
they  possess,  namely,  the  power  of  coagulating  a  great  part  of  the 
soluble  matter  of  sewage,  and  favoring  the  precipitation  of  the  in- 
soluble, can  only  be  applied  with  any  chance  of  success  after  the 
sewage  has  left  the  sewers ;  and,  even  then,  there  are  but  two  of 
them,  namely,  lime  and  the  superphosphate  of  lime  with  magnesia, 
that  can  be  used  with  advantage. 

"  Of  the  second  class  of  disinfectants,  those  which  act  chemi- 
cally on  the  volatile  matter,  and  break  them  up,  so  as  to  form  new 
compounds,  which  are  inert,  the  most  important  are  chlorine, 
chloride  of  lime,  hypochlorous  acid,  sulphurous  acid,  and  nitrous 
acid.  The  first  three  of  these,  namely,  chlorine  and  its  oxy-com- 
pounds,  operate  by  abstracting  hydrogen  from  the  putrid  vapors, 
and  perhaps,  also,  by  decomposing  water,  and  .  setting  the  oxygen 
free  to  destroy  the  miasm.  The  power  is  remarkably  great,  as  may 
be  seen  by  the  action  of  chlorine  or  chloride  of  lime  on  ordinary 
sewage.  Eight  grains  of  chloride  of  lime,  or  less  than  an  ounce  of 
the  solution  of  chlorine,  will  completely  deodorize  a  gallon  of 
sewage ;  and  the  diffusion  of  a  little  chlorine  through  the  worst 
kind  of  sewer  gases,  is  sufficient  instantly  to  deprive  them  of  their 
offensive  odor.  Nevertheless  chloride  of  lime  is  a  costly  agent. 
If  it  be  used  in  the  proportion  of  only  eight  grains  to  the  gallon, 
it  will  cost  nearly  £57,000  a  year  for  the  deodorization  of  the  city 
sewage,  andrfiearly  £237,000  for  the  sewage  of  all  London.  As 
for  the  gas  itself,  it  is  almost  impossible  go  to  apportion  and  manage 
the  diffusion  of  it  in  the  sewers  as  not  to  have  the  chlorine  or  the 
sewer  gases  in  excess. 

"  Sulphurous  acid  and  nitrous  acid  are  still  less  manageable,  and 


61 


besides  that  they  are  costly,  and  not  nearly  as  powerful  in  their 
action  as  chlorine.  Like  chlorine,  however,  they  disorganize  the 
putrid  molecules  and  decompoie  the  hydrosulphuric  compounds,  and 
fix  ammonia ;  but  like  it  also  they  are  powerful  irritants,  and  could 
scarcely  be  let  lodse  into  the  sewers  without  danger  to  the  workmen. 
"  The  last  of  the  disinfectants  are  those  which  expedite  the  pro- 
cess of  decay,  to  combine  with  oxygen,  and  to  become  inert.  Of 
this  class  there  are  two  members,  namely,  those  which  act  chemi- 
cally, and  supply  oxygen,  of  themselves,  to  the  offensive  compounds, 
and  those  which  merely  facilitate  oxydation  by  their  physical  pro- 
perties. The  manganatcs  and  permanganates  of  potash  are  the 
best  examples  of  the  first  class,  and  contain  a  large  proportion  of 
oxygen,  which  they  freely  give  the  putrid  organic  matter,  and  so 
destroy  it.  These  compounds  have  been  patented  by  Mr.  Condy, 
of  Battcrsca,  and  he  supplies  them  in  a  state  of  solution  of  various 
strengths.  That  which  I  have  used  in  my  experiments  contained 
nearly  six  per  cent,  of  the  permanganate,  and  could  be  supplied  at 
a  shilling  a  gallon.  One  hundred  and  fifty  drops  of  it  were  suffi- 
cient to  deodorize  a  gallon  of  ordinaiy  sewage;  but  the  disad- 
vantage of  it  is,  that  it  has  no  power  to  destroy  the  foul  gases  which 
have  already  escaped  into  the  sewer  air.  Besides  this,  the  cost  of 
the  material,  even  if  it  were  used  in  proportion  of  150  grains  to 
the  gallon,  would  be  about  £753,000  a  year  for  the  city  sewage,  or 
more  than  three  millions  per  annum  for  that  of  the  whole  metro- 
polis. Looking,  however,  merely  at  the  chemistry  of  the  subject, 
it  must  be  admitted  that  Mr.  Condy's  solution  is  a  powerful  and 
valuable  disinfectant. 

"  The  second  of  this  class  of  disinfectants  are  the  agents  which 
promote  oxydation  by  a  physical  property,  that  is  by  bringing  the 
putrid  matters  into  contact  with  atmospheric  oxygen.  There  are 
three  of  them,  namely,  fire,  water,  and  porous  solids.  The  first 
effects  the  change  by  active  combustion,  and  the  others  by  the 
slower  process  of  oxydation,  which  is  called  eremacausis  or  slow 
burning.  All  of  them,  however,  are  complete  in  their  action, 
and  are  under  different  circumstances  more  or  less  manageable 
and  useful. 

"  The  value  of  fire  as  a  disinfectant  was  known  and  has  been 


recognized  since  the  remotest  time.  The  sacrificial  altars  of  early 
nations  were  the  rude  methods  by  which  the  agent  was  employed  ; 
and  so  fully  did  the  ancients  believfe  in  its  salutary  action,  that  in 
times  of  pestilence  it  was  often  resorted  to  as  the  only  effective 
means  of  purifying  the  atmosphere.  In  the  popular  mind  there 
has  always  been  a  notion  that  the  plague  of  London  was  extermi- 
nated by  the  great  fire.  Powerful,  however,  as  the  agent  is,  it  does 
not  appear  to  be  applicable  to  the  destruction  of  the  sewer  gases, 
notwithstanding  that  the  use  of  it  for  such  a  purpose  has  always 
been  a  favorite  idea  with  every  new  commission  to  sewers,  and  is 
the  basis  of  most  of  the  amateur  schemes  of  the  present  day.  Mr. 
Bazalgette  has  stated,  in  his  evidence  before  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, that  putting  aside  all  the  difficulties  for  controlling  the  course 
of  the  air,  in  the  main  channel  of  the  sewers,  and  stopping  the 
leakage  from  the  thousands  of  openings  in  the  street  closets  and 
drains,  the  mere  cost  of  fuel  for  the  furnaces  would  not  be  less 
than  £80,000  a  year,  and  perhaps  it  might  reach  to  upwards  of 
£200,000. 

"  The  destruction  of  the  sewer  miasms  by  the  agency  of  water  is 
not  quite  so  unmanageable,  and  has  therefore  received  attention  from 
many  of  the  leading  engineers  of  the  present  day.  Mr.  Bazalgette 
says  of  it,  that  it  is  the  best  and  the  only  available  means  of  purify- 
ing the  sewers.  As  to  its  salutary  action  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
for  its  power  as  a  disinfectant  in  the  presence  of  atmospheric  air  is 
manifested  in  every  river  in  the  kingdom.  Wheresoever  the  putrid 
refuse  of  a  town  mixes  with  a  large  volume  of  fresh  water,  there 
the  process  of  oxydation  is  quickly  carried  out,  and  the  offensive 
matters  are  rendered  innocuous.  Even  the  river  Thames,  except 
at  a  peculiarly  dry  and  hot  season,  finds  within  itself  a  means  of 
purification  which  is  quite  equal  to  the  contaminating  influence  of 
the  soluble  organic  matter  that  flows  into  it.  This  is  effected  by 
the  physical  power  which  water  possesses  of  transferring  oxygen 
from  the  atmosphere  to  the  putrid  products,  and  this  is  so  great  that 
it  will  even  destroy  the  soluble  organic  constituents  of  ordinary  sew- 
age without  further  dilution  with  water.  I  cannot  inform  you 
very  accurately  what  quantity  of  water  is  necessary  for  the  purpose 
of  disinfection.  Already  there  is  a  daily  supply  of  about  thirty-one 


63 

gallons  to  each  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  metropolis.  But  this  is 
evidently  not  sufficient  to  cleanse  the  sewers,  for,  independently  of 
the  existence  of  a  putrid  atmosphere,  there  is  the  stronger  evidence 
of  their  foulness  and  the  condition  of  the  sewage  which  is  discharged 
after  a  heavy  fall  of  rain.  And  even  if  it  could  be  determined  pre- 
cisely what  amount  of  water  would  effect  the  purpose,  there  is  still 
the  difficulty  of  distributing  it  so  as  to  scour  out  all  the  channels ; 
for  this  could  not  be  accomplished  without  special  contrivances  for 
delivering  the  water  at  the  head  of  every  drain.  I  do  not  therefore 
see  much  prospect  of  success  in  this  mode  of  dealing  with  the  sub- 
ject. 

"The  last  means  of  destroying  the  offensive  matter  is  by  the 
agency  of  porous  solids ;  and  this  may  be  applied  either  to  the  sew- 
age itself,  or  to  the  gases  which  are  evolved  from  it.  The  best 
examples  of  such  an  agent  are  common  clay  and  charcoal.  Both 
of  them  operate  in  the  same  way,  namely,  by  condensing  the  putrid 
vapors  within  their  pores  and  upon  the  surface,  so  as  to  cause  them 
to  unite  with  atmospheric  oxygen,  and  produce  in  fact  a  species  of 
slow  combustion,  by  which  the  miasms  are  gradully  consumed.  To 
effect  this,  however,  there  must  be  a  free  access  of  atmospheric  air. 
Hence  it  is  these  substances  have  but  a  limited  power  of  deoxyda- 
tion  where  they  are  mixed  with  a  liquid  sewage,  or  are  so  over- 
charged with  water  as  to  be  incapable  of  absorbing  oxygen. 

"  Every  one  is  familiar  with  the  deodorizing  power  of  common 
earth  ;  in  fact,  the  grave-yards  of  every  city  testify  to  the  enormous 
quantities  of  organic  matter  that  can  be  disposed  of  through  its 
agency,  and  no  one  who  has  witnessed  the  rapid  deodorizing  power 
of  clay  when  sewage  or  night-soil  is  distributed  upon  the  land,  can 
doubt  its  efficacy.  The  Chinese  have  long  taken  advantage  of  this 
power,  for  they  mix  night-soil  with  one  third  of  its  weight  of  fat 
marl,  and  knead  it  into  cakes,  which  are  common  articles  of  com- 
merce. In  practice  also,  it  is  found  that  a  ton  of  clay  will  deodorize 
about  three  tons  of  the  solid  matter  of  sewage.  But,  powerful  as 
is  this  action,  it  is  not  applicable  to  liquid  sewage.  Even  in  the 
case  of  charcoal,  which  is  a  much  more  energetic  deodorizer  than 
common  clay,  the  power  is  speedily  lost  when  it  is  mixed  with  fluid 
refuse.  Dr.  Hofman  found  that  four  cubic  feet  of  charcoal  began 


64 

to  lose  their  power  of  dcodoriza,tion>when  about  seventy-eight  gal- 
lons, or  rather  more  than  three  times  their  bulk,  of  the  sewage  had 
passed  through  them.  Mr.  Blythe's  experiments  are  to  the  same 
effect.  To  this  I  may  add  that  the  cost  of  this  mode  of  deodoriza- 
tion  would  be  upwards  of  £230,000  a  year  fur  the  city  sewage.  The 
remedy  would  be  but  imperfect,  to  say  nothing  of  the  fact  that  it 
would  contribute  largely  to  the  solid  matter  already  in  the  sewers. 
"  The  most  effective  way  of  using  charcoal  as  a  deodorizer,  is  to 
take  advantage  of  its  power  of  absorbing  the  putrid  miasms  when 
they  are  in  a  vaporous  condition.  This  power  is  remarkably  great. 
It  was  noticed  by  Sausure  as  far  back  as  1814,  that  charcoal  took 
from  75.90  times  its  bulk  of  various  gases.  Count  Morozzo  had 
also  observed  the  same  fact,  and  had  directed  attention  to  it ;  and  later 
still,  Messrs.  Allen  and  Pepys  found  that  different  kinds  of  charcoal 
had  different  powers  of  absorption ;  and  yet  it  is  only  very  recently 
that  we  have  been  well  informed  in  this  matter,  and  we  owe  our 
knowledge  of  it  to  the  researches  of  Dr.  Stenhouse,  who  in  1853 
had  his  attention  directed  to  the  fact,  that  when  dead  bodies  of  large 
animals  are  covered  with  a  layer  of  charc6al,  they  putrefy  without 
evolving  any  unpleasant  odor,  notwithstanding  that  they  are  kept 
for  many  months. 

•  " 
"  Charcoal  as  an  Air-Filter. — These  results  suggested  the  use  of 

charcoal  as  a  respirator  and  an  air-filter,  and  soon  after  Dr.  Sten- 
house proposed  it  as  a  purifier  of  the  foul  gases  which  escape 
from  the  street  gullies,  the  sewers,  ventilators,  and  the  drains  of 
private  houses.  One  of  his  air-filters  is  in  action  in  the  justice-room 
of  the  Mansion  House,  and  another  is  in  the  justice-room  oi  Guild- 
hall, and  Dr.  Stenhouse  reports  that  their  operations  have  been 
successful  and  continuous  for  a  long  time.  I  have  myself  repeated 
some  of  Dr.  Stenhouse' s  experiments  during  the  last  twelve  months, 
and  have  ascertained  that  the  offensive  gases  from  a  close  cess-pool 
are  completely  deodorized  by  passing  them  through  a  small  box  con- 
taining about  thirty-six  cubic  inches  of  coarsely  powdered  peat 
charcoal.  I  have  had  this  in  continual  action  for  three  months  j 
and  although  the  charcoal  has  not  been  renewed,  yet  it  does  not 
show  any  sign  of  derangement  or  loss  of  power. 


65 


•*  All  kinds  of  charcoal  are  not  however,  equally  valuable  for  the 
purpose.  Dr.  Stenhouse  found  that  wood  charcoal  and  peat  char- 
coal are  the  most  effective.  Mr.  Blythe's  experiments  at  the  Board 
of  Health,  and  the  inquiries  made  in  my  own  laboratory  by  Mr. 
Fewrell,  are  to  the  same  effect.  The  cause  of  this  superiority  is 
doubtless  due  to  the  great  porosity  of  vegetable  charcoal.  Liebig 
states  that  the  pores  in  a  cubic  inch  of  beech-wood  charcoal  must, 
at  the  lowest  computation,  be  equal  to  the  surface  of  one  hundred 
square  feet,  and  several  other  chemists  have  estimated  it  at  more 
than  double  this  amount.  Hence  the  extraordinary  physical  power 
of  wood  charcoal  in  condensing  gases  and  vapors  within  its  pores ; 
so  that  when  it  is  exposed  to  an  atmosphere  containing  the  putrid 
products  of  decomposition,  it  absorbs  and  oxydizes  them  by  a  spe- 
cies of  combustion  that  is  as  effectual  as  if  they  were  passed  through 
the  ignited  coals  of  a  furnace. 

"  Now  in  making  a  practical  application  to  these  facts,  it  is  mani- 
fest that  we  have  in  common  wood  charcoal  a  powerful  means  of 
destroying  foul  gases  of  sewers.  How  it  is  to  be  applied  is  fortu- 
nately a  question  of  but  little  embarrassment,  for  let  the  sewers  be 
ventilated  as  they  may,  either  by  open  gratings  in  the  street  or  by  the 
rain-water  pipes  of  the  houses,  or  by  pillars  of  the  gas-lamps,  or  by 
tubes  carried  up  at  the  landlord's  expense  from  the  drains  of  every 
house,  or  by  especial  shafts  of  the  public  street — in  fact,  let  the 
gases  go  out  of  the  sewers  how  they  will  and  where  they  will,  you 
have  but  to  place  a  small  box  containing  a  few  pennies'  worth  of 
charcoal  in  the  course  of  a  draft,  and  the  purification  of  the  air  will 
be  complete." 

SYSTEM  OF  SEWERS. — To  procure  the  most  efficient  system 
of  sewerage,  by  a  well-connected  system  of  sewers,  and  to 
determine  their  proper  level,  and  the  degree  of  declination  of 
which  they  are  capable,  according  to  the  situation  and  nature 
of  the  soil  of  the  place,  as  well  as  to  ascertain  what  are  the 
best  materials  for  their  construction,  and  the  diameters  best 
adapted  to  give  them  proper  powers  of  transmission,  are  ques- 
tions which,  although  they  must  Tbe  investigated  and  deter- 
5 


66 

mined  by  the  civil  engineer,  are  still  of  lively  interest  to  the 
professional  sanitarian.  Thus,  for  instance,  he  will  tell  us 
that  the  very  large  sized  sewers,  such  as  the  Cloaca  Maxima, 
unless  intended  for  trunk  sewers  running  the  entire  length  of 
the  city,  are  not  serviceable.  Egg-shaped  culverts  of  a 
moderate  sfee,  and,  preferably  still,  circular  pipes  of  small 
diameter,  and  perfectly  smooth  and  glazed,  are  superior,  by 
far,  to  the  sewer  with  upright  sides  and  flattened  segmental 
invert.  It  would  be  difficult  to  estimate  the  great  amount 
that  might  be  saved  not  only  by  a  judicious  system  of  sewer- 
age, but  even  by  a  proper  form  of  sewers,  unless  from  data 
such  as  those  furnished  some  years  ago  by  Mr.  Williams  in 
his  examination  before  Commissioners  of  whom  we  have  pre- 
cedingly  spoken.  In  the  Westminster  district  of  London,  in 
forty  miles  of  covered  drains  built  during  a  period  of  ten  years, 
a  loss  of  a  sum  equal  to  333,348  dollars  was  incurred  by 
faulty  construction.  In  the  whole  metropolis,  which  includes 
the  city  of  London,  Westminster,  the  Holbom  and  Fins- 
bury  districts,  and  the  Tower  Hamlets,  also  the  Surrey  and 
Kent  portions,  which  include  the  borough  of  Southwark,  it 
appears  that,  during  a  period  often  years,  about  220  miles  of 
sewers  were  built.  The  difference  between  the  expense  ac- 
tually incurred  in  this  work  by  the  construction  of  upright 
sided  sewers  with  man-holes,  and  that  which  would  have  been 
required  by  egg-shaped  or  arched  sewers,  with  a  flushing  ap- 
paratus, was  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  pounds  sterling,  or  about 
one  million  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars. 
There  is  much  less  friction  and  risk  of  detention  of  sewage 
when  the  conveying  duct  is  egg-shaped  or  circular.  Even 
the  opening  of  gully-holes,  or  the  introduction  of  a  gully- 
neck  in  the  crown  of  the  arch  to  admit  the  surface-water  of 
the  street  into  the  sewer,  produces  accumulations.  The  plan 
so  common  in  London  of  forming  the  opening  of  private  or 
house-drains  at  right  angles  to  the  sewers,  and,  to  aggravate 


67 

the  difficulty,  of  having  them  to  approach  the  culvert  at  an 
elevation  of  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  above  the  latter,  com- 
bines  both  objections  ;  that  of  flattened  invert  and  the  junc- 
tion of  two  sewers  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  When 
sewers  meet  at  right  angles,  there  is  a  diminution  of  velocity, 
and  eddies  are  formed,  as  well  as  injurious  accumulations  of 
deposit  above  the  point  of  meeting  ;  the  rectangular  mode  of 
junction  of  the  sewers  increasing  the  resistance  more  than 
200  per  cent.  It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  internal 
surface  of  the  sewer  should  be  perfectly  smooth,  and  in  order 
to  retain  this  property,  that  it  should  be  built  of  indestructible 
materials,  in  part  for  reasons  already  assigned,  and  also  to 
prevent  inequalities  and  cavities  from  being  formed,  and  the 
risk  of  falling  of  the  entire  wall  by  its  becoming  a  burrow  for 
rats,  which  have  a  great  partiality  for  public  sewers.  Of 
equal  necessity  is  a  suitable  declination  in  the  line  of  the 
sewer,  from  its  upper  end,  or  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  to  its 
termination  in  a  river,  or  in  a  reservoir  for  the  purpose.  Mr. 
Hosking,  whose  calculations  were  made  on  certain  low  situ- 
ations in  Westminster,  assumes  that  a  fall  of  two  inches  the 
hundred  feet,  with  a  good  back-water  from  a  river,  at  equal 
intervals,  would  be  sufficient. 

So  imperfect  was  the  public  drainage,  not  many  years  ago, 
in  even  the  best  parts  of  London,  as  in  Regent  street  and 
Portland  place,  that,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Mr.  Guth- 
rie,  before  the  Health  of  Towns  Commissioners,  there  was 
not,  at  the  time  he  made  his  observations  in  those  streets,  one 
gully  clean  in  twenty  that  were  not  greatly  choked  up,  and 
this  even  during  heavy  falls  of  rain.  An  idea  may  be  had  of 
the  little  interest  felt  in  a  system  of  progressive  sewerage,  from 
the  fact,  that  in  some  large  towns  of  England,  as  Wigan, 
Rochdale,  and  Bolton,  there  was  not,  some  years  since,  the 
slightest  knowledge  of  the  plans  of  the  sewers  already  made. 
Neglect  of  this  kind  should  serve  as  a  warning  to  the  munici- 
pal governments  in  the  United  States  to  avoid  similar  faults. 


68 

The  escape  of  deleterious  emanations  from  sewers  is  pre- 
vented by  traps  or  valves  at  the  opening  in  the  upper  part, 
and  the  termination  of  the  other  end  under  water ;  and,  if  the 
opening  at  this  end  is  exposed  at  low  tides,  by  closing  it  with 
a  gate.  In  London,  Liverpool,  and  Glasgow,  and  in  Paris  and 
Hamburg,  as  well  as  in  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia, 
the  mouths  of  the  sewers  are  exposed  at  low  tide,  and  constitute 
an  offense  to  the  nostrils,  and  a  probable  source  of  disease.  Of 
the  ventilation  of  sewers  we  shall  speak  after  awhile.  Unless 
there  be  an  abundant  supply  of  water  for  keeping  the  lower 
and  branch  drains  free  from  obstruction  and  accumulation, 
they  will  prove  a  source  of  annoyance  and  disease.  To  give 
effect  to  these  means,  a  general  and  systematic  survey  of  the 
different  levels  of  a  town  should  be  made,  and  a  uniform  plan 
of  sewerage  adopted.  Much  trouble,  expense,  and  sickness 
will  be  saved  in  its  subsequent  history,  if  these  measures  be 
adopted  in  the  beginning  of  every  new  town.  The  rise  of 
such  is  common  enough  in  our  widely  extended  country,  in 
which  the  direct  wants  and  necessities  of  trade,  and  emulous 
speculation  are  continually  urging  its  people  to  new  schemes — 
the  foundation  of  a  second  Tyre  or  Alexandria,  of  another 
Persepolis,  or  Carthage,  or  Rome.  As  a  general  rule,  each 
house-drain  at  least  ought  to  be  provided  with  a  trap  or  valve 
to  prevent  the  escape  of  emanations  from  the  drain  into  the 
house.  Especially  is  this  necessary  where  the  supply  of 
water  is  not  enough  to  keep  the  drain  clean.  Mr.  Simpson, 
advocate  of  Edinburgh,  urges  strongly  the  advantage  of  a 
separation  of  sewers  proper  from  surface-drains  ;  the  first 
holding  sewerage  proper,  the  second  giving  passage  to  rain 
and  melted  snow.  He  recommends  the  entire  abandonment 
of  built  sewers,  and  the  substitution  of  close  pipes  or  tubes  in 
their  room. 

The  entire  separation  of  sewerage  from  rain-fall  is  strenu- 
ously urged  by  Mr.  F.  O.  Ward,  in  a  letter  to  William  Cun- 


69 


ingham,  Esq.,  Member  of  Parliament,  in  relation  to  the  puri- 
fication of  the  river  Thames.  Mr.  Ward's  cardinal  proposition 
is,  "  that  the  whole  of  the  rain-fall  is  due  to  the  river,  the 
whole  of  the  sewage  to  the  soil."  And  again,  "that  just  as 
on  the  one  hand,  the  sewage  proper  should  be  carefully  di- 
verted from  the  Thames,  just  so,  on  the  other  hand,  should 
the  rain-fall  be  directed  to  the  Thames,  to  aid  its  scour — which 
suffers  from  every  drop  withdrawn.  To  divert  a  rain-brook  is 
to  mutilata  a  river."  Both  sewage  and  rain-falls  are  rendered 
useless  by  admixture. 

The  proportions  of  the  two,  apart  from  economical  consider- 
ations connected  with  the  disposal  and  utilization  of  sewage, 
forbid  recourse  to  the  same  system  of  conduits  for  their  con- 
veyance. The  average  weight  of  the  residuum  (excluding 
moisture)  yielded  to  the  sewage  by  each  man,  woman,  and 
child  in  London,  is  about  two  ounces  per  diem,  and  by  the 
entire  population,  139  tons  in  this  period.*  This  is  an  insig- 
nificant quantity,  if  delivered  as  fast  as  produced.  "But  in- 
stead of  taking  measures  to  secure  to  London  this  regular  de- 
cimal evacuation,  we  keep,  on  the  most  moderate  estimate,  at 
least  twelve  moaths'  excretS  constantly  stagnating  under 
ground,  as  deposit  in  the  cess-pools  and  sewers.  The  mass  of 
putridity  thus  constantly  'retained  in  subterranean  London  ac- 
tually equals  one  day's  evacuation  of  the  whole  population  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  numbering  eight  hundred  millions." 

The  rain-fall  on  the  London  drainages,  Mr.  Ward  thinks, 
may  yield  to  the  sewage  some  eighty  or  ninety  millions  of 
tons  annually — a  total  about  equivalent  to  the  annual  total  of 
sewage.  Were  the  *fall  of  rain  equally  distributed  through- 
out the  year,  it  could,  like  the  sewage,  be  easily  disposed  of. 

*  Dr.  Letheby,  as  will  have  been  seen  in  a  preceding  page,  estimates  the 
dry  solid  excreta  of  each  inhabitant  of  the  metropolis,  to  amount  to  from  2 
to  2£  ounces,  and  the  entire  amount  of  solid  matter  contained  in  the  sewage 
of  one  day,  to  be  about  152.60  tons. 


70 

But  so  far  from  this  being  the  case,  the  whole  of  the  rain-falls 
on  one  hundred  and  fifty-two  days  of  the  year,  and  of  the  an- 
nual twenty-four  inches,  sixteen  fall  on  forty-four  days — or 
two  thirds  of  the  rain  in  about  one  eighth  of  the  days.  The 
disproportion  between  sewage  and  rain-fall  is  such,  that,  in 
one  day  in  twelve,  the  former  is  to  the  latter  as  one  to  four 
and  three  quarters;  in  ten  days  in  the  year,  as  one  to  nine  and 
a  half;  and  on  some  few  occasions,  annually  it  is  as  one  to 
nineteen,  and  upwards.  Nor  is  the  rain-fall  assigned  to  each 
rain-day  diffused  over  twenty-four  hours  of  time  ;  R)  that,  for 
example,  seven  millions  of  tons  of  rain,  equal  to  more  than  a 
month's  sewage,  sometimes  fall  on  London  in  a  single  hour. 
"  The  mixed  streams  of  rain-fall  and  sewage,  liable  to  be 
thus  suddenly  swollen,  exceed  the  capacity  of  any  tunnels  that 
can  be  built  for  their  diversion  from  the  river,  and  would  over- 
flow in  any  mechanism  at  our  disposal  for  their  distribution 
upon  the  soil." 

Let  us,  with  Mr.  Ward,  consider  the  effect  of  a  sudden  rain- 
storm falling  on  London,  and  pouring  through  the  over- 
charged subterranean  receptacles  in  the  shape  of  sewers  par- 
tially banked  up  with  the  accumulated  sewage.  Suppose  it 
were  to  sweep  into  the  river  nine  or  ten  days'  accumulation  of 
filth ;  this  would  be  enough  to  discolor  the  tidal  river,  and  in 
hot  weather  render  its  waters  putrescent  for  several  days. 
The  money-loss  on  every  such  occasion  would  be,  in  ammonia 
only,  without  reckoning  phosphorus,  nearly  sixteen  thousand 
pounds  sterling — $80,000. 

Up  to  the  point  of  meeting  of  the  two  streamlets,  the  one 
of  the  rain  from  roof  and  area,  and  the  other  of  the  sewage, 
from  closet  and  sink,  we  are  free  to  apply  each  of  them  to  its 
proper  use.  "  We  can  send  the  unpolluted  rain-fall  to  scour 
the  river,  and  the  undiluted  sewage  to  fertilize  the  land.  But 
directly  this  junction-point  is  passed,  directly  the  rivulet  of 
cistern-water,  rich  with  its  freight  of  ammonia  and  phospho- 


71 


rus,  meets  and  mingles  with  the  casual  rain-fall,  the  two 
waters  become,  as  we  have  seen,  a  worthless,  unmanageable 
mixture,  equally  unfit  for  agricultural  and  urban  use.  Not 
only  do  they  cease  to  be  our  property,  and  pass  beyond  the 
control  of  art,  but  they  revert  to  the  domain  of  nature,  spoiled 
even  for  her  simple  service.  For  this  error  we  are  punished 
by  pestilence." 

Mr.  Ward  speaks  in  terms  of  gratification  at  his  having, 
with  his  friends,  succeeded  in  establishing  the  tubular  drainage 
of  houses  and  streets,  after  a  ten  years'  struggle  with  the 
engineers.  The  tubular  sewers  "are  now  working  successfully 
by  hundreds  of  miles,  not  only  in  provincial  towns,  but  in 
the  metropolis  itself."  The  writer  is  confident  "that  this  tubular 
purification  of  the  Thames,  will*  ultimately  supersede  the 
monstrous  tunnel  process,  which,  if  adopted,  would  cost  us 
many  millions,  and  turn  out  a  gigantic  failure  after  all." 

Dr.  Huxley  proposes  to  combine  the  embankment  of  the 
Thames  on  both  sides,  throughout  the  metropolis,  with  the 
formation  of  main  sewer  canals,  the  contents  of  which  shall  be 
subject  to  a  tidal  flushing  towards  the  mouth  of  the  river 
twice  daily  from  flood  to  two  thirds  ebb.  The  fall  in  the  canals 
should  be  only  that  of  the  river  itself.  At  certain  intervals, 
the  canals  would  leave  the  river  edge  (the  embankments  to 
cease),  and  take  a  subterranean  course  by  tunnels — five  in 
number,  and  in  length  twenty  miles  on  the  north  side,  and 
three  in  number,  and  seventeen  miles  in  length  on  the  south 
side  of  the  river.  By  means  of  the  upper  divergings  from  the 
river,  the  port  of  London  would  be  left  untouched,  while  the 
lower  tunnels  would  obviate  sharp  bends  in  the  river,  which 
would  offer  obstacles  if  followed  in  the  course  of  the  canals. 

The  depth  of  the  canals  should  be  three  feet  below  the 
lowest  ebb  of  the  stream  ;  their  height,  four  feet  below  the 
soil  and  pavement  of  the  embankment.  Taking  the  rise  of 
the  Thames  at  London  Bridge  at  twenty  feet,  the  canals  would 


72 

thus  be  twenty-five  feet  in  depth,  and  the  top  of  the  embank- 
ment  six  feet  above  high  water.  The  breadth  of  the  canals 
might  be  determined  according  to  the  area  required — say 
twenty  feet,  which  would  give  a  sectional  area  of  five  hundred 
square  feet.  All  London  surface-water,  as  well  as  sewage, 
should  be  allowed  to  enter  the  canals,  both  as  an  assistance  to 
the  movements  of  their  contents,  and  a  means  of  frequently 
lessening  the  amount  of  the  river-water  abstracted  from  the 
canals  for  the  purposes  of  navigation. 

If  the  saving  of  the  sewage  for  the  purposes  of  agriculture 
be  a  settled  question,  the  required  accessibility  might  be  ob- 
tained at  those  points  on  the  canals  where  it  is  proposed  to 
make  them  open  to  the  air  (Rainham  Creek,*  Gray's 
Thurrock,  and  Plumstead  ]\f  arshes). 

"  Greatness  of  the  cost  is,"  Dr.  Huxley  thinks,  "  about 
the  last  consideration  which  ought  to  deter  from  any  scheme 
embracing  the  power  really  to  do  the  work.  If  five  millions 
sterling  were  required  and  spent,  five  per  cent  thereon  would 
not  exceed  two  shillings  per  head  per  annum  on  the  popula- 
tion of  London."* 

The  editor  of  the  Sanitary  ^Review,  Dr.  Benjamin  W. 
Richardson,  in  some  remarks  and  suggestions  on  this  subject 
(No.  xlv.),  while  noticing  the  exaggerations  respecting  the 
existing  evil,  admits  the  necessity  of  cleansing  the  Thames, 
and  that  such  arrangements  should  be  made  as  shall  at  once 
lead  to  the  constant  and  ready  removal  of  the  sewage  with 
which  the  water  is  loaded.  "  Among  the  temporary  plans  for 
relieving  the  river  of  its  dirty  burden,  the  one  most  likely  to 
answer  the  purpose  for  the  present,  and  it  may  be  for  the 
future,  consists  in  adopting  for  the  direct  removal  of  sewage, 
a  system  resembling  the  present  water-conveyance  system. 
A  series  of  pipes  laid  down  on  the  river-side  to  receive  the 
sewage  flow,  and  convey  it  towards  the  sea  from  the  city, 

*  Sanitary  Review^  No.  xiii. 


73 

would  at  once  meet  the  emergency,"  as  in  the  plan  proposed 
by  Mr.  Austin,  and  in  that  as  described,  on  a  grand  scale,  by 
Dr.  Huxley,  just  now  placed  before  our  readers. 

"There  is  yet,"  writes  Dr.  Richardson,  "another  idea 
which  has  occurred  to  us,  and  which  deserves  at  least  as  much 
consideration  as  the  majority  of  the  schemes  which  have  been 
brought  before  the  public.  This  idea  suggests  that  floating 
reservoirs  might  be  constructed  for  the  reception  of  the  sewer 
flow.  We  see  no  reason  why  the  contents  of  a  sewer  might 
not  be  intercepted  by  a  floating  reservoir,  through  which  the 
water  part  of  the  sewage  might  filter,  and  which,  when  charged 
with  the  solid  and  valuable  sewage  matter,  might  be  lugged 
away  for  its  contents,  to  be  disembarked  elsewhere,  and  dis- 
posed of  for  agricultural  purposes.  We  doubt  not,  that  with 
this  arrangement  rendered  practicable,  all  the  cost  of  sewage 
removal  would  be  undertaken  by  private  enterprise.  The 
lading  of  sewage  vessels  with  valuable  cargoes,  indeed  intro- 
duces merely  a  new  business  for  the  river  sailor." 

In  London,  as  we  learn  from  the  instructive  "  Eeport  on 
the  Results  of  Examinations  made  in  relation  to  Sewerage  in 
several  European  cities,"  by  E.  S.  Chesbrough,  Chief  En- 
gineer of  the  Board  of  Sewerage  Commissioners,  Chicago, 
there  were,  in  a  grand  total  of  934  miles  of  covered  and  400 
of  open  sewers,  126  of  pipes,  in  1855.  The  first  pipe  sewer 
was  laid  in  1848.  The  greatest  length  of  any  one  is  two  and 
a  half  miles.  Mr.  Hay  wood,  Engineer  of  the  city  of  London, 
has  always  laid  circular  pipes  ;  none  smaller  than  nine  inches, 
nor  larger  than  fifteen  inches  diameter ;  the  joints  are  put 
together  sometimes  with  puddled  clay,  sometimes  with  cement. 

The  return  of  reflux  odors,  one  of  the  greatest  objections  to 
house-drains,  is  prevented  by  three  modes  pointed  out  by  Mr. 
Simpson  :  "  First,  the  water  pan  in  and  the  sigmatic  curve 
under  the  water-closet  and  sink ;  next,  another  sigmatic 
curve,  if  the  descent  will  make  it  safe,  where  the  pipe  joins 


74 

• 

the  main  street-drain ;  and  thirdly,  a  delicately  hung  flap 
valve  of  galvanized  iron  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  tube,  where 
it  discharges  into  the  main  drain.  The  valve  will  always  be 
shut,  except  when  opened  by  a  flow  from  the  house."  In 
the  severe  winters  of  our  climate,  obstructions  to  the  easy 
working  of  these  contrivances  will  not  unfrequently  occur, 
owing  to  the  water  freezing  in  the  supply-pipe.  For  his 
sewers,  Mr.  S.  rightly  asserts  that  water  in  unstinted  propor- 
tion is  indispensable,  but  especially  for  a  system  of  tubular 
sewers,  which  cannot  be  cleansed  by  any  other  method. 
*  For  drains,  earthenware  pipes,  glazed,  are  preferable  to  brick 
conduits,  which  sometimes  allow  of  exudation  of  their  contents. 
The  size  of  a  pipe  for  a  drain  will  depend  on  the  number  of 
houses.  In  one  instance,  in  London,  an  18-inch  drain  was 
carried  400  feet  at  the  back  of  forty  houses,  where  there  was 
a  good  supply  of  water,  and  it  was  kept  clean. 

Eobert  L.  Viele,  Esq.,  Civil  and  Topographical  Engineer,  in 
a  statement  in  the  Senate  Committee  Report,  expresses  un- 
hesitatingly his  opinion,  that  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  mor- 
tality of  the  city  of  New  York,  "is  to  be  found  in  the 
defective  drainage  of  certain  districts  of  the  city,  and  further- 
more, that  this  is  an  evil  which  is  increasing  as  the  city  extends 
itself  towards  the  northern  portion  of  the  island,  and  that  the 
main  elements  by  which  this  evil  is  increased,  are  the  so-called 
city  improvements,  or  grading  of  streets  or  avenues  which  are 
now  being  carried  forward." 

Mr. ,  Viele  then  describes  the  intricate  topography  of  the 
island  of  New  York :  "  Abrupt  ledges  of  rock,  deep  and  nar- 
row valleys,  sudden  upheavals  and  contortions  of  the  geographi- 
cal formations,"  with  a  surface  varying  in  elevation  from  5  to 
150  feet  above  high-water  mark.  "  Winding  along  this  varied 
surface  in  every  direction,  are  the  original  drainage  streams, 
one  of  them  of  such  an  extent  that  it  was  formerly  used  for 
mill  purposes."  No  attention  having  been  paid  to  the  original 


75 


topography  of  the  island,  in  the  arrangement  of  streets  and 
avenues,  deep  ditch  excavations  and  high  embankments  have 
been  made,  so  that  these  latter  cross  the  old  valleys  of  drain- 
age, and  become  so  many  drains  for  the  collection  of  water  all 
over  the  island,  which  in  summer  are  converted  into  "  stag- 
gant  pools,  breeding  pestilence  and  disease."  The  earth 
dumped  in  to  absorb  the  water,  when  it  is  desired  to  improve 
these  lots,  soon  becomes  saturated,  and  forms  a  sort  of  sponge 
through  which  the  water  ascends,  and  continues  to  be  a  per- 
manent source  of  humid  and  noxious  exhalations.  No  system 
of  sewerage  in  which  the  sewers  are  only  ten  or  twelve  feet 
below  the  grade  of  the  streets,  can  remedy  this  evil,  when  in 
some  instances  the  underground  streams  are  forty  feet  below 
the  grade  of  the  streets,  "  being  thirty  feet  between  the  bottom 
of  the  sewer  and  the  water  of  drainage."  Melancholy  evidence 
of  the  evils  arising  from  habitation  of  a  made  soil,  thus  impro- 
perly drained,  is  afforded  in  the  sacrifice  of  lives  among  the 
wretched  victims  sent  to  the  present  "Halls  of  Justice,"  or 
the  "  Tombs,"  as  they  are  appropriately  called,  which  are 
built  on  the  site  of  the  old  Collect  Pond,  seventy  feet  deep — 
it  was  here  that  Fitch  launched  his  first  steamboat.  The  pond 
was  connected  with  the  Hudson  River,  by  a  stream  running 
through  what  is  now  Centre  and  Canal  streets ;  in  this  section 
of  the  city  it  is  impossible  to  have  dry  cellars. 

In  giving  farther  currency  to  Mr.  Yiele's  statement  of  the 
actual  impediments  to  a  complete  system  of  drainage  of  the 
city  of  New  York,  and  of  his  remedy,  which  we  subjoin,  our 
design  is,  as  in  the  cases  of  hygienic  deficiencies  in  other  cities, 
not  merely  to  incite  to  a  reform  in  thejn,  but  also  to  furnish 
warning  to  new  cities,  or  those  in  embryo,  against  the  com- 
mission of  similar  mistakes  and  omissions  in  their  incipient 
plans  for  civic  improvement.  Mr.  Viele  describes  his  remedial 
measures  as  follows  : 

"  The  remedy  to  be  applied  in  the  lower  part  of  the  city  is 


76 

to  widen  the  narrow  streets,  and  to  raise  the  grade  where  the 
streets  pass  through  the  original  depression  of  the  surface. 
Narrow  streets,  under  any  circumstances,  are  a  curse  to  a  city. 
They  are  too  generally  the  abodes  of  vice  and  crime.  In 
them  an  ordinary  sickness  spreads  into  a  pestilence,  and  a 
fire  into  a  conflagration.  They  are  always  filthy  in  summer, 
and  frequently  blocked  up  with  snow  in  winter.  They  are 
not  fit  for  business  purposes,  for  they  stifle  commerce  ;  nor  for 
residences,  for  they  breed  disease.  Wide  streets,  on  the  con- 
trary, are  more  healthful  and  cheerful  for  residences,  and  more 
useful  and  valuable  for  business  purposes.  There  is  less  danger 
from  fire,  as  the  flames  cannot  spread  across  the  street.  They 
are  cleaner  in  summer,  and  are  never  impassable  in  winter. 
By  constructing  lateral  drains  along  the  slope  of  the  depres- 
sions in  the  lower  part  of  the  city,  and 'connecting  them  with 
the  sewers,  they  will  intercept  the  water  in  its  descent,  and 
prevent  its  accumulation  in  the  original  basins;  and  then  rais- 
ing the  grade  as  is  proposed  in  the  accompanying  profile  of 
Worth  street,  at  the  same  time  widening  the  streets  and  per- 
haps discontinuing  some  of  the  short  and  insignificant  streets 
in  the  6th  Ward,  the  health  of  the  city  will  be  improved  one 
hundred  per  cent.  So  far  as  regards  the  upper  part  of  the 
city,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  some  system  should  be 
adopted  for  the  free  flow  of  water  along  the  channels  of  the 
original  drainage  stream.  This  can  be  done  by  building  more 
substantial  culverts  beneath  the  streets,  and  by  the  construc- 
tion of  permanent  drains,  so  built  as  to  admit  of  the  percolation 
of  water  through  the  interstices  of  the  covering.  These  drains 
should  be  excavated  to  a  firm  substratum,  and  every  property 
owner  should  be  compelled  to  construct,  of  a  uniform  charac- 
ter, tha£  portion  of  each  drain  which  may  pass  through  his 
property."  ^^ 

Disposal  of  Sewage. — The  subject  of  the  application  of 
sewage  for  agricultural  purposes  has  been  freely  discussed  of 


77 

late  years,  especially  in  connection  with  its  deodorization,  and 
subsequently  the  free  and  more  general  use  of  it  than  could  be 
obtained  in  its  unaltered  and  offensive  state.  The  practice  of 
the  Chinese,  the  most  economical  cultivators  of  the  soil,  is  quoted 
at  the  same  time,  and  their  practice  of  uniting  clay  with  fecal 
collections,  and  selling  the  compound  for  manure,  referred  to. 
Objections  have  been  made  to  the  deodorizing  of  sewage  by 
chemical  agents,  on  the  ground  of  their  neutralizing  the  am- 
monia, and  destroying  one  of  the  most  active  of  the  exciters 
to  vegetable  growth.  It  has  been  computed,  that  if  the  whole 
drainage  of  London  could  be  employed  for  manurial  purposes 
at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  city,  the  animal  increase  in 
the  value  of  the  land  t<*wliich  it  would  be  applied,  would  ex- 
ceed half  a  million  of  pounds  sterling,  or  about  two  millions 
five  hundred  thousand  dollars.  An  estimate  by  Mr.  Smith, 
a  distinguished  agriculturist,  places  this  question  in  a  strong 
light.  It  rates  the  annual  average  value  of  the  excreta  of 
each  individual  at  five  dollars  ;  so  that,  taking  the  whole 
population  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  at  twenty-eight  mil- 
lions, we  are  positively,  says  this  writer,  throwing  away 
every  year  that  which  is  equivalent  to  twenty-eight  millions 
sterling,  or  140  millions  of  dollars.  The  actual  salable  value 
of  the  excreta  in  Belgium  is  thirty-seven  shillings,  and  at 
this  rate,  continues  the  English  writer  just  named,  we  may 
be  said  to  be  depositing  the  worth  of  fifty-one  millions  ster- 
ling in  the  ocean  that  washes  our  shores. 

According  to  Dr.  Lyon  Playfair,  a  pound  of  urine  is  capable 
of  increasing  the  production  of  grain  by  an  equal  weight ;  so 
that  even  allowing  for  some  exaggeration  in  this  estimate, 
the  human  urine  wasted  in  the  British  kingdom  would  serve 
to  produce  more  than  all  the  grain  required  for  the  consump- 
tion of  their  entire  population,  besides  affording  through  its 
fertilizing  influence  on  lands  at  present  imperfectly  tilled,  or 
not  tilled  at  all,  a  source  of  employment  to  a  superabundant 
laboring  population. 


78 

Mr.  Campbell,  in  an  address  on  the  utilization  of  sewage, 
says  :  "  The  chief  element  of  the  manurial  value  of  town 
sewage  is  the  excremental  material,  and  this,  in  the  instance 
of  London,  with  a  population  of  2,600,000,  amounts  annually 
to  53,393  tons  of  dry  solid,*  which,  as  I  have  already  shown, 
contains  ingredients  which  give  it  a  value  of  fifteen  pounds 
sterling  ($75)  per  ton,  at  least. 
The  quantity  of  ammonia  which  this  contains, 

or  is  capable  of  producing,  is 11,440  tons. 

The  phosphoric  acid, 1,839     " 

And  the  potash,  &c., 1,331     " 

These  three  items  make  up  a  money  value  of  about 
836,834  pounds  sterling,  equal  to  4p!84,170  dollars. 

The  number  of  methods  that  have  been  proposed  for  obtain- 
ing manure  from  town  sewage  may  be  considered,  Mr.  Camp- 
bell thinks,  under  three  heads. 

1.  Filtration  through  various  media,  and  after  the  addition 
of  chemical  substances. 

2.  Precipitation  by  means  of  various  re-agents. 

3.  Irrigation. 

Reviewing  the  three  modes  here  named,  Mr.  Campbell  in- 
clines to  that  by  irrigation,  and  concludes,  that  by  no  process 
of  chemistry  hitherto  known,  can  a  highly  valuable  solid  ma- 
terial be  procured  from  town  sewage  alone. 

Mr.  Ward,  in  his  letter  to  Mr.  Cunningham,  of  which  we 
have  already  made  large  use  (p.  509),  says  on  the  present 
theme  :  "  In  the  first  place  I  would  remind  you,  that  to  throw 
away  the  ammonia  and  the  phosphorus  of  the  London  sewage, 
is  virtually  to  throw  away  bread.  Town  sewage,  which  many 
engineers  look  upon  as  refuse  to  be  discharged,  I  regard  as 
property  to  be  administered.  The  proper  outfall  for  the  Lon- 
don sewage  is  not  this  or  that  point  of  the  river  or  of  the  sea, 

*  There  must  be  some  mistake  in  this  estimate,  which  is  not  made  more 
than  a  third  of  that  made  by  Dr.  Letheby. 


79 

"but  a  suitable  tract  of  land  growing  exhausting  crops.  Fifty 
farms  of  a  thousand  acres  each  might  be  raised  in  value  at 
least  ten  pounds  per  acre  per  annum,  equivalent  to  five  per 
cent,  to  ten  millions  of  capital.  This  ought  not  to  be  thrown 
into  the  sea." 

VENTILATION. — Two  great  requisites  for  the  healthy 
existence  of  human  beings,  are  due  supplies  of  pure 
air  and  of  pure  water.  Without  these,  the  most  abundant 
food  and  all  the  appliances  furnished  by  science  and  art  will 
be  of  little  avail ;  and  yet,  by  a  singular  inconsistency  in 
human  conduct,  there  would  seem  to  be  a  fixed  determination 
on  the  part  of  the  majority  of  mankind  to  deprive  themselves 
of  these  essential  elements  of  health.  Air,  in  an  especial 
manner,  is  shut  out  from  habitations  by  all  kinds  of  con- 
trivances, or,  when  allowed  ingress,  it  is  deteriorated  by  ad- 
mixture with  emanations  from  decayed  organic  matter,  or 
from  living  bodies  brought  together  in  large  numbers,  to  meet 
the  wants  of  what  is  called  civilization. 

The  atmosphere  by  which  we  are  surrounded  and  from 
which,  by  means  of  respiration,  our  bodies  derive  the  oxygen, 
or  vital  element  of  the  air — that  necessary  for  the  support  of 
life — is  at  the  same  time  the  great  reservoir  into  which  flow 
all  the  exhalations  from  the  bodies  of  men  and  animals,  and 
those  resulting  from  the  animal  and  vegetable  decay  which 
takes  place  on  the  surface  of  the  soil.  If  not  carried  into 
space  in  the  upper  air  by  winds,  tbey  would  prove 
a  destructive  poison  to  all  the  people  congregated  in  cities 
and  towns.  The  process  by  which  these  exhalations  are  re- 
moved is  ventilation ;  and  the  more  complete  it  is,  the 
healthier  are  the  inhabitants  ;  as,  on  the  other  hand,  its  irrifr 
perfection  and  neglect  are  productive  of  diseases  of  the  worst 
kind.  Streets  are  so  many  channels  for  conveying  the  requi- 
site air  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  houses  on  either  side  of  them; 


80 

and  the  wider  and  more  numerous  are  these  channels,  the 
more  completely  is  their  object,  in  this  respect,  attained.  Pro- 
portions ought  to  be  preserved  between  the  breadth  of  a  street 
and  the  height  of  the  houses  in  it.  If  the  latter  be  very  high, 
and  the  former  narrow,  both  the  air  and  sun  are  prevented 
from  reaching  the  street,  and  lower  portion  of  the  houses. 
Still  greater  detriment,  in  this  respect,  is  experienced  by  the 
occupants  of  narrow  alleys  and  small  courts,  in  which  unfortu- 
nately the  crowd  of  inhabitants  is  greatest,  and  the  supply  of 
fresh  air  and  suitable  ventilation  the  least.  Every  sanitary 
investigation,  down  to  the  last  made  in  New  York,  goes  to 
show  the  magnitude  of  the  injury  done  to  the  public  health  by 
this  last-mentioned  state  of  things.  The  ills  thence  resulting 
are  on  the  increase,  since  they  follow,  too  generally,  in  certain 
but  not  well-defined  proportions,  the  growth  of  the  cities 
themselves.  No  excuse,  therefore,  will  be  offered  for  dwelling 
on  this  subject,  first  by  presenting  the  darker  and  repulsive 
features,  and  then  under  its  remedial  and  preventive  aspect. 

Few  pause,  says  Dr.  D.  B.  Reid,  to  consider  the  necessary 
consequence  of  20  respirations  per  minute,  1200  per  hour,  or 
28,800  in  a  single  day  and  night  for  every  adult  human  being, 
and  of  his  abstracting,  during  this  period  of  twenty-four  hours, 
from  the  atmospheric  magazine,  his  portion  of  air,  amounting 
to  fifty-seven  hogsheads,  of  which  he  retains  vital  oxygen  to 
the  amount  of  about  twenty  pounds,  that  enters  into  his  blood, 
and  there  serves  to  maintain  the  activity  of  all  the  functions 
of  life,  corporeal  as  well  as  mental.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  about  one  fourth  of  all  the  air  drawn  into  the  lungs  by 
inspiration  is  altered  in  these  organs,  and  is  no  longer  fitted 
for  respiration.  The  alteration  consists,  first,  in  the  abstrac- 
ion  of  the  vitalizing  element  of  oxygen  ;  and  secondly,  in  the 
addition  of  the  deleterious  and  poisonous  gas — carbonic  acid 
— which,  together  with  volatilized  animal  matter,  is  given  out 
by  expiration,  and  passes  into  the  outer  and  common  atmo- 


81 

sphere.  But  if,  instead  of  a  free  inhalation  of  pure  atmo- 
spheric air,  there  takes  place  that  of  a  noxious  or  impure  air, 
from  which  the  exhaled  carbonic  acid  has  not  been  carried 
away,  two  results  ensue  :  first,  the  individual  fails  to  receive 
his  proper  proportion  of  oxygen,  while  he  suffers  from  the  in- 
halation of  the  noxious  carbonic  acid  gas  ;  and  secondly,  the 
lungs  are  unable  to  eliminate  from  the  blood  with  their  usual 
freedom  the  noxious  products,  including  this  very  carbonic 
acid,  or  its  base,  carbon,  the  retention  of  which,  together  with 
the  animal  matter  (previously  mentioned)  in  the  system,  is 
productive  of  serious  disorder  in  itself,  and  predisposes  to  the 
attacks  of  current  diseases.  This  abnormal  condition  of 
things  will  continue,  with  aggravation,  on  to  a  fatal  termination, 
if  the  same  air  be  breathed  over  and  over  again,  without  its 
being  displaced  by  a  purer  air  ;  that  is,  without  ventilation 
being  carried  on.  Bad  ventilation,  as  well  said  by  Dr,  Reid, 
is  also  injurious  to  the  mind  as  to  the  body  ;  and,  where  it  is 
utterly  neglected,  not  only  produces  headache  and  apoplexy, 
but,  conjoined  with  other  circumstances,  is  prone  to  favor  that 
depression  which  leads  at  times  to  low  spirits,  and  even  to 
suicide. 

Defective  Yentilation — Crowded  Streets  and  Habi- 
tations.— Taking  into  account  the  physiological  data  just 
mentioned  in  connection  with  the  facts  previously  de- 
scribed, of  the  noxious  effluvium  of  the  gases  result- 
ing from  the  putrefaction  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter, 
we  find  a  ready  explanation  of  the  great  amount  of  sick- 
ness and  high  death-rates  among  the  crowded  courts  and 
cellar  population  in  Liverpool,  Birmingham,  New  York,  and 
other  cities.  In  Liverpool,  in  1841,  there  were  2,398  courts 
containing  68,365  persons.  In  the  parish  of  Birmingham,  the 
older  and  more  densely  inhabited  parts  of  the  town,  there  were 
2000  courts,  containing  50,000  inhabitants.  In  Liverpool 
it  was  not  enough,  for  outraging  humanity  and  common-sense, 


82 

that,  gloomy  and  badly  ventilated  as  the  houses  themselves 
were  in  the  courts,  there  were  found  cellars  under  more  than 
one  half  of  them,  or  1272  in  number,  occupied  by  6290 
persons.  The  whole  number  of  cellars  in  Liverpool  was 
7892,  containing  a  population  of  nearly  40,000  persons,  or 
five  persons  on  an  average  to  each  cellar  Aware,  as  we  are, 
of  the  impossibility  of  a  ventilation  of  these  courts  and  cellars, 
and  the  continued  deterioration  of  the  air  by  exhalations  from 
them  and  their  inmates,  we  need  not  wonder  at  the  bad  emi- 
nence which  that  city,  after  the  registration  act  had  gone  into  full 
operation,  unexpectedly  acquired,  on  the  score  of  disease,  and 
the  short  average  duration  of  life  of  its  inhabitants,  taking  them 
in  the  aggregate.  Reference  has  been  made  in  a  previous  part' 
of  this  report  to  the  greater  amount  of  sickness  and  mortality  in 
the  undrained  than  in  the  drained  cellar  districts  of  Liver- 
pool. The  concomitant  evils  attending  this  crowded  popula- 
tion are  tersely  described  by  Dr.  Reid,  in  speaking  of  the 
8000  houses  in  Nottingham,  built  back  to  back  and  side  to 
side,  and  with  no  other  outlet  than  the  street-door.  "  Suffice 
it  to  say,  that  in  such  quarters  it  is  hardly  possible  that  a 
family  can.  preserve  for  any  term  of  years,  either  decency, 
morals,  or  health."  Worse,  if  possible,  than  the  scenes  ex- 
hibited in  some  English  towns,  is  the  condition  of  the  poor 
in  the  chief  cities  of  Scotland.  Dr.  Arnot,  among  other 
details,  relates  that  in  some  of  the  wynds  of  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow,  there  were  no  sewers  or  drains,  and  the  dung-heaps 
received  all  the  filth  which  the  swarm  of  wretched  inhabitants 
could  give:  he  learned  that  a  considerable  part  of  the 
rent  of  the  houses  was  paid  by  the  produce  of  the  dung-heaps. 
The  interior  of  these  houses,  and  ^eir  inmates,  corresponded 
with  their  exterior.  "We  saw  half-starved  wretches  crowd- 
ing together  to  be  warm,  and  in  one  bed  ;  although  in  the 
middle  of  the  day,  several  women  were  imprisoned  under  a 
blanket,  because  as  many  others,  who  had  on  their  backs  all 


83 

the  articles  of  dress  that  belonged  to  the  party,  were  then 
out  of  doors  in  the  streets." 

The  pictures  drawn  some  years  back  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Griscom, 
of  the  diseases  and  mortality  caused  by  residence  "in  the  damp, 
dark,  and  chilly  cellars"  of  New  York,  and  of  "  the  degraded 
habits  of  life,  the  filth,  the  degenerate  morals,  the  confined 
and  crowded  apartments,  and  insufficient  food  of  those  who 
live  in  more  elevated  soil,  engendering  a  different  train  of 
diseases,  failed  to  arrest  the  attention  of  the  authorities.  The 
evils  have  been  allowed  to  go  on  increasing,  until  at  last  their 
alarming  excess  has  led  to  official  investigations,  the  results 
of  which  fully  confirm  all  that  Dr.  Griscom,  and  other  sani- 
tarians on  the  spot,  had  previously  proclaimed.  They  are 
embraced  in  a  "  Report  of  the  Select  Committee  appointed 
to  investigate  the  Health  Department  of  the  City  of  New 
York,"  which,  together  with  a  large  amount  of  appended  docu- 
ments, in  the  shape  of  medical  and  other  testimony,  and 
tabular  matter,  was  transmitted  to  the  Legislature,  February 
3,  1859.  A  startling  fact  which  tells  in  a  few  figures  the 
deplorable  state  of  the  public  health  in  the  city  of  New  York, 
is  its  gradual  deterioration,  with  some  interruptions  and  short 
rises,  during  the  last  forty-six  years.  Thus,  we  learn  that 
in  1810,  with  a  population  of  96,713,  the  deaths  were  1  in 
46.6;  whereas,  in  1857,  with  a  population  of  probably 
700,000,  the  deaths  were  1  in  27.15.  The  testimony  of  Dr. 
Griscom,  in  Committee,  is  full  of  instructive  details,  direct 
and  comparative,  on  the  subject  of  the  causes  of  the  increase 
of  death-rates  in  New  York.  He  shows  that  if  the  mortality 
of  London  bore  the  same  ratio  as  that  of  New  York  to  popu- 
lation, it  would  have  been  92,784,  in  place  of  56,786,  which 
was  its  actual  mortality.  Dr.  G.  quoted  from  the  Report  of 
a  Committee  of  the  Association  for  Improving  the  Condition  of 
the  Laboring  Classes  in  the  City  of  New  York,  in  which  the 
dwellings  in  many  parts  of  the  city  are  thus  characterized : 


84 

"  Crazy  old  buildings  ;  crowded  rear  tenements  in  filthy  yards, 
dark,  damp  basements,  leaky  garrets,  shops,  out-houses,  and 
stables,  converted  into  dwellings,  though  scarcely  fit  to  shelter 
brutes,  are  the  habitation  of  thousands  of  our  fellow-beings 

7  o 

in  this  wealthy,  Christian  city."  "  In  Oliver  street,  Fourth 
Ward,  for  example,  is  a  miserable  rear  building,  16  feet  by  30, 
two  stories  and  garret,  three  rooms  to  each  of  the  first  and 
second  floors,  and  four  in  the  attic;  in  all,  ten  small  apart- 
ments, which  contain  fourteen  families.  The  entrance  is 
through  a  narrow,  dirty  alley,  and  the  yard  and  appendages 
of  the  filthiest  kind."  In  Cherry  street,  is  a  "  tenement- 
house,"  in  two  lots,  extending  back  from  the  street  about  150 
feet,  five  stories  above  the  basement,  so  arranged  as  to  contain 
120  families,  or  more  than  500  persons.  "  But  the  most 
objectionable  habitations  in  this  district  are  the  cellars,  in 
some  instances  six  feet  under  ground,  which  have  to  be  bailed 
out  after  every  rain-storm,  and  are  so  damp  as  to  destroy 
health,  so  dark  as  to  prevent  industry,  and  so  low  that  ven- 
tilation is  impossible.  Though  utterly  unavailable  for  every 
other  use,  they  are  rented,  at  rates  which  ought  to  procure 
comfortable  dwellings,  to  persons  who  have  become  as  debased 
in  character,  as  the  condition  is  degrading,  in  which  they 
live."  Many  of  the  poor  of  the  Sixth  Ward  "  are  in  a  con- 
dition incomparably  worse  than  the  hovel-dwellers,  where  fa- 
ther, mother,  children,  and  swine  live  and  lodge  together." 
In  the  Eighth  Ward,  "  Kotten  Row,"  so  unlike  the  fashiona- 
ble locality  in  London  thus  called,  "  consists  of  eight  houses 
on  either  side  of  the  street,  fronting  each  other,  with  as  many 
more  in  the  rear,  containing,  in  all,  about  two  hundred  and 
fifty  families,  and  not  less  than  one  thousand  two  hundred  and 
fifty  persons,  in  a  space  of  about  one  hundred  and  eighty  f jet, 
by,  perhaps,  a  depth  of  fifty  feet  on  each  side.  The  pestifer- 
ous stench  and  filth  of  these  pent-up  tenements  exceed  descrip- 
tion. In  one  room,  says  a  visitor,  six  people  are  living,  with 


85 

hens  scratching  about  on  the  bed.  Every  corner  of  these 
buildings  is  occupied — cellars  and  garrets."  The  cellar  popu- 
lation of  New  York  is  believed  to  be  twenty-five  thousand. 
What  makes  the  case  worse  with  the  occupants  of  these  tene- 
ments and  cellars,  is,  the  circumstance  of  many  of  them  being 
emigrants  from  Europe,  particularly  from  Ireland  and  Ger- 
many, who,  during  their  voyage,  had  suffered  from  defective 
ventilation,  in  their  being  crowded  between  decks,  and  com- 
pelled to  breathe  much  of  their  time  a  damp  and  impure  air. 
Among  the  diseases  arising  from,  or  singularly  multiplied  and 
aggravated  by,  what  Dr.  Griscom  terms  '•'  internal  domiciliary 
causes,"  are  Cholera  Infantum,  Diarrhoea,  and  Erysipelas, 
which  have  been  increased  in  a  high  proportion  since  1820. 

Dr.  Samuel  Rotton,  in  his  testimony  before  the  Committee, 
repeating,  in  a  summary  manner,  what  had  been  said  by  Dr. 
Griscom,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  also  by  Dr.  McNulty,  af- 
firms the  chief  causes  of  the  mortality  in  New  York  to  arise 
from  a  great  number  of  the  inhabitants  living  "  with  the 
smallest  amount  of  air  that  is  necessary  to  keep  life  in  them, 
and  the  smallest  possible  quantity  of  light  with  which  they 
can  possibly  see  and  get  along  with ;  and  these  causes  have 
been  proven  by  Dr.  Griscom  to  produce  much  greater  mortali- 
ty than  bad  food  or  bad  clothing,  because,  the  people  who 
have  lived  in  the  same  way,  with  the  same  food  and  clothing, 
in  better  localities,  have  been  seventy-five  per  centum  better 
with  regard  to  mortality  than  those  who  lived  in  cellars  and 
other  dark,  unventilated,  and  miserable  places."  During  the 
cholera  season  of  1849,  in  New  York,  Dr.  Rotton  noted  the 
fact  of  the  great  mortality  from  the  disease  among  the  occu- 
pants of  cellars,  and  hence,  it  became  his  invariable  practice 
to  have  such  persons,  when  attacked,  immediately  removed. 
He  does  not  know  of  a  single  case  of  recovery  of  those  who 
were  not  removed.  "The  reason  is  obvious,"  continues  Dr. 
R.  "  In  many  of  them  I  was  obliged  to  wade  my  way  upon 


86 

bricks,  "before  I  could  stand  upon  the  floors,  for  the  water 
would  cover  my  feet."  In  the  same  year,  Dr.  Rotton  attend- 
ed a  great  many  patients  who  were  attacked  with  Typhus  or 
Ship  Fever,  and  with  results  similar  to  those  just  noticed  in 
regard  to  Cholera.  All  whom  he  could  not  remove  from  the 
cellars,  died — whereas,  those  who  were  situated  in  well-venti- 
lated places  fared  much  better.  He  mentions  the  cases  of 
two  men  lying  sick  with  Typhus  Fever,  "in  a  back  alley- 
way." His  constant  recommendation,  at  every  visit,  to  admit 
fresh  air,  was  as  constantly  disregarded,  and  on  his  return,  each 
day,  he  found  the  windows  again  closed,  the  door  closed,  and  a 
number  of  persons  living  in  the  same  room  with  the  sick.  At 
last,  Dr.  Rotton,  becoming  exasperated,  broke  out  eveiy  pane 
of  glass  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  windows.  His  patients 
gradually  improved,  and  recovered.  Dr.  D.  Meredith  Reese, 
in  his  testimony  before  the  Committee,  lays  down  the  propo- 
sition, that  "  The  true  criterion  and  best  index  of  atmospheric 
impurity,  in  any  city,  or  other  locality,  is  manifested  in  young 
children,  whose  greater  susceptibility  to  morbid  causes,  by 
reason  of  their  greater  delicacy  of  structure,  renders  them  the 
earliest  victims  of  atmospheric  poisons.  Hence  the  fearful 
aggregate  of  infant  mortality  in  New  York,  which  authentic 
statistics  disclose,  is  at  once  the  fruit  and  the  proof  of  the  con- 
taminated air  they  breathe,  in  the  wretched  habitations  of  the 
poor,  where  confined  and  ill-ventilated  apartments  render 
healthy  respiration  impossible."  Dr.  Reese  assigns  other 
causes  for  infant  mortality,  which  do  not  come  under  our  pre- 
sent head,  but  which  are  suggestive  of  the  importance  and 
necessity  of  sanitary  reform,  not  only  in  New  York,  but  in 
most  other  cities.  His  views  on  the  exceedingly  interesting 
topic  of  infant  mortality  in  large  cities,  have  been  embodied 
in  a  Report  to  the  American  Medical  Association,  which  he 
offered  as  part  of  his  testimony  before  the  New  York  Com- 
mittee, 


87 

The  morbid  effects  of  crowding  and  deficient  ventilation 
are  well  illustrated  by  comparison  with  an  opposite  condition 
of  things,  as  set  forth  by  Dr.  Eichard  S.  Kissam.  The  com- 
parison is  of  the  state  of  health  of  two  wards  in  New  York, 
the  most  healthful  and  the  least  healthful.  In  the  Sixth  Ward 
there  were  twenty-five  thousand  inhabitants  in  1856,  having 
one  thousand  four  hundred  dwellings,  and  the  deaths  were  one 
thousand  and  eighty-nine.  In  the  Fifteenth  Ward  the  popu- 
lation was  twenty-four  thousand  and  forty-six,  who  occupied 
two  thousand  four  hundred  and  forty-five  dwellings,  and  the 
deaths  among  whom  were  four  hundred  and  thirty-six.  The 
proportion  of  deaths  in  the  Fifteenth  Ward  is  one  in  fifty-five, 
and  in  the  Sixth  Ward  one  in  twenty-three.  The  contrast, 
as  set  forth  in  the  Report  itself,  between  the  Fifteenth  and  the 
First  Wards  in  1857,  was  still  greater.  The  proportions 
were  1  in  69.68  in  the  former,  and  1  in  21.96  in  the  latter. 
Dr.  Kissam  states  the  difference  between  New  York  and  Phil- 
adelphia, on  the  score  of  public  health,  to  be,  that  almost 
every  family  in  the  latter  city  has  a  tenement  in  itself;  the 
members  of  it  are  well  provided  and  comfortable.  "  The  city, 
of  course,  has  a  larger  number  of  houses  in  proportion  than 
our  own.  It  is  very  seldom  that  there  is  more  than  one  family 
in  a  house  ;  but  here,  as  has  been  stated,  there  are  twenty  or 
thirty  families  in  one  house."  To  the  question,  "  Then 
you  regard  ventilation  as  a  great  principle  connected  with 
the  preservation  of  health?"  Dr.  Kissam  replies:  "Most 
assuredly,  even  in  higher  walks  than  among  the  poor.  Our 
Academy  of  Medicine  will  sit,  night  after  night,  being  poison- 
ed, so  that  those  who  are  sensitive  on  this  point,  invariably 
have  a  headache  the  next  day.  The  Historical  Rooms,  the  new 
building,  is  very  badly  ventilated.  The  subject  of  ventila- 
tion is  one  that  seems  to  escape  the  attention  of  builders  as 
well  as  of  officers." 

Examples  of  the  connection  of  overcrowding  with  the  de- 


88 

velopment  of  Typhus,  Scarlatina,  and  Cholera,  are  numerous. 
Some  striking  cases  of  this  nature  are  recorded  by  Mr.  Cox, 
in  the  Sanitary  Review •,  April,  1858.  In  the  limits  of  two 
streets,  in  the  village  of  Bromley,  fifty-three  cases  of  fever  oc- 
curred. The  disease  did  not  extend  to  the  rest  of  the  village, 
neither  did  it  break  out  elsewhere  within  the  district.  The 
evident  cause  of  this  local  fever,  and  its  mortality,  was  the 
"  awful"  overcrowding.  Each  house  consisted  of  four  rooms, 
about  twelve  feet  square.  "  An  entire  family  lived  and  slept 
in  each  chamber.  In  one,  Mr.  Cox  counted  seven  human 
beings,  who  occupied  the  same  filthy  couch — a  father, 
mother,  three  adult  daughters,  and  two  younger  children. 
In  a  second  room,  six  persons  slept,  viz.,  a  widow,  her  two 
grown-up  daughters,  an  adult  son,  and  two  young  children.'' 
It  is  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  rooms  were  indescribably 
foul,  fetid,  close,  and  disgusting.  "  In  the  above  instance," 
continues  Mr.  Cox,  "we  can  have  no  hesitation  in  ascribing 
the  concentration  and  severity  of  the  fever-poison  (if  not  in- 
deed its  actual  development)  to  the  vitiated  atmosphere  pro- 
duced by  the  overcrowding."  He  made  every  inquiry,  but 
was  quite  unable  to  trace  the  origin  of  the  disease  to  any  other 
sources.  Dr.  Duncan,  of  Liverpool,  described,  some  years 
ago,  a  filthy,  pent-up  court,  one  of  the  thousands  in  that  city, 
with  an  area  of  only  one  hundred  and  fifty  square  yards,  occu- 
pied by  one  hundred  and  eighteen  inhabitants,  or  about  one 
and  a  quarter  square  yards  to  each.  This  average  breathing 
room  is  only  one  half  of  what  it  ought  to  be  at  night.  In  this 
court,  fifty  cases  of  fever,  or  nearly  one  half  the  population, 
were  attended  by  the  Dispensary  in  a  single  year.  Some  of 
the  most  frightful  ravages  of  Cholera  on  record  were  owing  to 
the  direct  pulmonary  poisoning  by  impure  air  and  animal  efflu- 
vium, accumulated  for  want  of  suitable  ventilation.  Exam- 
ples of  this  nature  have  been  furnished  in  all  parts  of  the 
civilized  world — in  the  East  Indies,  at  Karrachee,  among  the 


troops,  at  Juggernaut,  among  the  native  population,  also  in 
tlie  crowded  and  ill-ventilated  barracks  ;  in  England,  among 
the  brickmakers  at  Southal,  the  hop-pickers  at  East  Farleigh, 
the  pauper  children  at  Tooting,  the  lunatics  in  the  Wakefield 
Asylum,  the  convicts  at  the  Wakefield  Old  Prison,  the  in- 
mates of  the  Millbank  Penitentiary,  and  of  the  Taunton 
Work-house.  At  a  time  when  no  case  of  Cholera  had  occurred 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Tooting,  and  when,  indeed,  even  Dia- 
rhoea  was  not  at  all  prevalent  in  the  village,  three  hundred  of 
the  inmates  of  the  establishment  were  smitten  with  the  secret 
pestilence,  and  of  these  no  less  than  one  hundred  and  eighty 
died.  The  girls,  whose  dormitories  were  the  most  overcrowded 
and  the  worst  ventilated,  suffered  more  severely  than  the  boys. 
The  essential  cause  of  all  this  mortality  was  declared  to  be 
"the  inordinate  crowding  of  the  establishment."  The  num- 
bers crowded  together  into  the  dormitories  were  so  great,  that 
each  boy  had  only  one  hundred  and  fifty  cubic  feet,  and  each 
girl  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  cubic  feet  of  air  allowed  for 
respiration,  and  some  of  the  apartments  were,  at  the  same 
time,  so  faultily  constructed — there  being  windows  on  one 
side  only — that  no  effective  ventilation  could  possibly  be  kept 
up. 

How  far  this  scant  supply  of  the  pabulum  vitce  falls 
short  of  the  requirements  of  health,  may  be  inferred  from  the 
recommendation  of  the  inspectors  of  prisons  in  England, 
some  years  ago,  that  every  prisoner  should  have  one  thousand 
cubic  feet  of  air,  and  from  the  estimates  which  have  been  made 
in  other  quarters,  that  health  and  strength  cannot  be  main- 
tained in  a  space  of  less  than  seven  hundred  to  eight  hundred 
cubic  feet ;  and  that  to  live  and  sleep  in  a  space  less  than  four 
hundred  to  five  hundred  cubic  feet  for  each  individual,  is  not 
compatible  with  safety  to  life,  even  where  there  is  no  extrinsic 
or  superadded  cause  of  atmospheric  impurity.  And  let  it  not 
be  supposed  that  even  the  first-named  spaces  would  be  suffi- 


90 

cient  in  a  hermetically-closed  box  or  chamber,  for  life  would 
become  extinct  long  before  the  oxygen  had  been  consumed.* 
In  Philadelphia,  we  have  had  some  sad  reminders  of  the  per- 
nicious effects  of  overcrowding  and  want  of  ventilation  in  the 
mortality,  and  preceding  horrors  in  the  old  Arch  Street  Prison, 
during  the  cholera  season  of  1832,  and  in  the  Blockley  Alms- 
house  in  the  epidemic  of  1849.  We  may  note  also  similar 
catastrophes  in  the  Bucks  County  Poorhouse,  and  the 
Baltimore  Almshouse.  Although  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and 
Baltimore  compare  advantageously  with  New  York  in  their 
annual  death-rates,  yet  they  have  also  their  dark  spots, 
their  bad  districts,  in  which  physical  is  associated  with 
moral  degradation  and  impurity,  and  Cholera  claims  its 
largest  proportion  of  victims.  Whatever  effects  may  be  at- 
tributed to  bad  or  defective  supply  of  food  in  the  production 
of  this  disease,  it  has  been  said,  with  no  doubt  much  truth, 
that  the  state  of  health,  as  well  as  the  proclivity  to  disease,  is 
influenced  much  more  by  the  condition  of  the  air  that  is 
breathed  than  of  the  food  that  is  eaten.  The  foul  and  fetid 
atmosphere,  continues  the  English  writer,  f  of  our  Whitechap- 
els,  and  Bermondseys — aided  often  by  intemperance — has 
more  to  do  with  the  haggard  looks  and  earthy  complexion  of 
these  denizens  than  even  penury  or  want.  Dr.  Letheby,  in 
visiting  some  of  the  rooms  tenanted  by  poverty-stricken  beings 
crowded  together,  found  the  atmosphere  so  close  and  unwhole- 
some, and  infected  with  that  peculiar  fainty  and  sickening 
smell  so  characteristic  of  the  filthy  haunts  of  poverty,  that  he 
endeavored  to  discover  the  special  offending  element.  He  as- 
certained that  the  contaminated  and  reduced  air  was  not  only 
deficient  in  due  proportion  of  oxygen,  but  that  it  contained 
three  times  the  usual  amount  of  carbonic  acid,  besides  a  quan- 
tity of  alkaline  matter  that  stank  abominably,  doubtless  the 

*  Brit,  and  For.  Med.-Chir.  Review,  vol.  vii.,  1851. 
f  Ibid. 


* 


91 


product  *of  putrefaction  of  the  various  fetid  and  stagnant  ex- 
halations that  are  given  off  from  the  unclean  "body,  and  a 
pestilential  scourge  of  disease,  the  consequence  of  heaping  hu- 
man beings  into  such  contracted  localities. 

Observations  have  been  made,  and  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
justify  the.  belief,  that  the  intensity  and  mortality  of  Scarlet 
Fever  are  greatly  increased  by  overcrowding.  Mr.  Cox,  al- 
ready quoted,  describes  an  outbreak  of  this  Fever  with  fearful 
and  uncontrollable  malignity  in  a  dismal  court  at  the  back  of 
Covent  Garden,  London.  There  were  altogether  nineteen 
cases  in  the  three  houses,  whereof  ten  terminated  fatally.  Mr. 
Cox  "can  confidently  attribute  this  fearful  mortality  to  the 
overcrowding  ;  as,  although  the  disease  prevailed  extensively 
in  the  neighboring  streets,  it  did  not  assume  the  same  malig- 
nity of  type,  and  yielded  to  remedial  measures."  Both  Mr. 
Cox  and  a  friend  who  accompanied  him,  and  shared  the  pro- 
fessional duties  with  him  on  his  visits  to  this  forbidding  spot, 
contracted  the  disease,  and  narrowly  escaped  with  their  lives. 
Measles  have  nearly  double  the  mortality  in  the  crowded 
north-western  districts,  that  they  have  in  comparatively  thinly 
peopled  south  and  south-east  ones  of  England.  Even  though 
we  must  attribute  a  good  deal  to  the  ready  transmission  of 
contagious  disease  among  a  thickly  planted  population,  we 
can  hardly  doubt,  as  suggested  by  Mr.  Simon,  that  a  general 
weakness  of  constitution,  conjoined  with  defective  sanitary 
arrangements,  greatly  aggravates  the  fatality  of  the  contagious 
diseases  in  question. 

Predilection  of  Cholera  for  Old  Haunts  of  Disease. — 
Dr.  Laycock,  in  his  highly  interesting  report  to  the  Health  of 
Towns  Commissioners,  on  the  Epidemics  of  York,  tells  us, 
that  the  first  steps  of  the  plague  which  used  to  ravage  that 
ancient  city  in  the  middle  ages,  down  to  the  early  part  of 
the  seventeenth  century,  seem  to  have  been  very  similar  to 
those  of  the  cholera  in  1831,  marking  the  badly-drained  dis- 


triets  by  its  course,  as  did  the  latter.  "It  is  a* singular 
coincidence,"  remarks  Dr.  Laycock,  "that  while  the  cholera 
commenced  in  the  Hay-market,  near  the  traditional  spot  of 
the  plague  under  consideration  (in  1604),  and  probably  near 
to  that  of  1551,  the  first  death  from  cholera  took  place  also  in 
the  parish  of  St.  Michael,  Spurriengall,  and  on  June  5th."  It 
was  in  this  parish,  and  on  June  4th,  1604,  that  the  first  death 
from  plague  occurred.  The  first  case  that  occurred  in  the 
town  of  Leith  (Edinburgh),  in  1848,  took  place  in  the  same 
house,  and  within  a  very  few  feet  of  the  same  spot  where  the 
epidemic  of  1832  commenced  its  course.  On  its  re-appear- 
ance in  the  town  of  Pollockshaws,  it  snatched  its  first  victim 
from  the  very  same  room  and  the  very  bed  in  which  it  had 
broken  out  in  1832.  Its  first  appearance  in  Bermondsey  was 
close  to  the  same  ditch  in  which  the  earlier  fatal  cases  occurred 
in  1839.  At  Oxford,  in  1839  as  in  1832,  the  first  case 
occurred  in  the  county  jail.  This  return  to  its  former  haunts 
has  been  observed  in  several  other  places,  and  the  experience 
in  foreign  countries  has  been  similar.  At  Groningen,  in  Hol- 
land, the  disease  in  1832  attacked,  in  the  better  part  of  the 
city,  only  two  houses,  and  the  epidemic  broke  out  in  these 
two  identical  houses  on  the  visitation  of  1848.  But  it  was 
observed,  that  while  in  both  epidemics,  those  of  1832  and  1848 
-9,  the  disease  was  localized  in  precisely  the  same  districts, 
several  of  them  have  changed  places  in  the  relative  degree  in 
which  they  have  suffered  The  earliest  case  of  cholera  in 
Chelsea  (near  London),  in  1848,  is  said  to  have  been  in 
Whitehall  Court,  and  there  it  continued  to  exist  until  the  end 
of  the  epidemic  in  1849.  The  first  case  in  1854  was  in  the 
same  place,  perhaps  also  in  the  same  house,  in  both  visita- 
tions. A  very  similar  fact  is  presented  by  Augusta  Court,  in 
which  the  three  earliest  fatal  cases  of  cholera,  in  Chelsea,  oc- 
curred in  February,  1832  ;  and  which  being  revisited  in  1854, 
continued  to  furnish  victims  to  the  pestilence  throughout  the 


early  duration  of  the  outbreak.  Kent  and  Mew  streets, 
South  work  (on  the  south  side  of  the  Thames),  which  were 
severely  visited  at  an  early  period  of  the  last  epidemic,  were 
also  among  the  first  seats  of  cholera  in  1832.  Dr.  Acland 
relates  that,  with  one  exception,  every  yard  and  every  street 
in  St.  Thomas's  parish,  Oxford,  which  had  been  attacked  by 
cholera  in  1832  and  1849,  was  revisited  in  1854. 

It  is  evident,  from  these  and  many  more  analogous  facts, 
that,  although  we  are  unable  to  explain  all  the  conditions  for 
the  development  of  cholera,  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  deny 
the  great  influence  of  locality  on  its  production. 

Public  Lodging-Houses. — To  speak  of  overcrowding  is  at 
once  suggestive  of  public  lodging-houses,  long  a  recognized 
and  prolific  source  of  disease  and  vice.  They  are  in  all  large 
cities  the  nightly  resorts,  not  only  of  the  migrating  laborer 
and  traveling  artisan,  but,  also,  of  the  lower  mendicants, 
thieves,  and  prostitutes.  It  was  no  uncommon  thing,  as  Dr. 
Duncan  related,  when  writing  on  the  sanitary  state  of  Liver- 
pool, for  the  keepers  of  lodging-houses,  in  that  city,  to  cover 
the  floor  with  straw,  and  to  allow  as  many  human  beings  as 
could  manage  to  pack  themselves  together,  to  take  up  their 
quarters  for  the  night,  at  the  charge  of  a  penny  (a  little  over 
two  cents)  each.  The  havoc  made  by  the  cholera  in  the 
lodging-houses  of  Manchester  was  terrible.  In  some  of  them 
as  many  six  or  eight  bodies  were  contained  in  a  single  room, 
which  was  crowded  promiscuously  with  men,  women,  and 
children.  Dr.  Howard,  after  showing  the  lamentable  extent 
to  which  they  become  hot-beds  of  febrile  diseases  of  the  most 
violent  and  fatal  character,  owing  mainly  to  their  filthy  and 
unveritilated  condition,  thus  describes  the  morals  of  their 
frequenters,  and  their  malign  influence  in  this  way  on  the 
young  and  inexperienced  :  "  They  serve  as  open  receptacles 
of  crime,  vice,  and  profligacy,  and  as  nurseries  in  which  the 


94 

young  and  yet  uninitiated  become  familiar  with  every  species 
of  immorality.  They  are  the  haunts  of  the  most  depraved 
and  abandoned  characters,  as  well  as  the  most  miserable  and 
suffering  objects  of  the  town  (Manchester),  and  constitute  one 
of  the  most  influential  causes  of  the  physical  and  moral 
degradation  of  our  laboring  population."  In  Glasgow,  where 
the  same  evils  prevailed  to  an  alarming  degree,  the  lodging- 
houses  have  been  subjected  to  regular  municipal  supervision 
and  ordinance,  and,  as  we  are  told,  with  excellent  effects. 
Partial  inquiries  made  in  our  large  American  cities,  reveal  a 
state  of  things  approaching  to  the  evils  just  pointed  out  as  so 
common  in  those  of  Great  Britain,  and  which  call  imperatively 
for  the  ameliorating  and  reforming  influences  introduced  with 
success  of  late  years  in  different  parts  of  this  kingdom.  To 
these  we  shall  soon  advert. 

General  Want  of  Ventilation. — But  the  evil  consequences 
of  crowding  and  defective  ventilation  are  not  confined  to 
the  poor  and  the  destitute.  Wherever  people  are  brought 
together  for  religious  worship,  for  amusement  or  recreation, 
in  the  halls  of  legislation  and  of  law,  in  school-rooms, 
hospitals  almshouses,  and  prisons,  the  neglect  of  sani- 
tary measures,  and  especially  of  ventilation,  is  the  rule. 
Attention  to  this  paramount  means  of  preserving  health  is 
the  exception.  JSTor  are  the  mansions  of  the  rich  and  tasteful 
exempt  from  the  penalty  of  infraction  of  one  of  the  chief  if  not 
the  very  first  of  the  natural  laws.  This  stricture  is  still  more 
applicable  to  modern  than  to  old  houses. 

In  modern  houses,  the  neglect  of  ventilation  is  extreme,  as 
far  as  regards  recourse  to  any  other  means  of  obtaining  it  than 
the  windows  of  the  rooms.  All  the  fire-places,  as  they  used  to 
be  called,  are  hermetically  sealed  by  slabs  of  marble,  and 
when  the  register  of  the  flue,  by  which  warm  air  is  introduced, 
is  closed,  as  at  night,  or  when  the  room  becomes  too  warm  in 


95 

the  day,  there  is  no  aperture,  either  for  the  admission  of  fresh 
air  from  without,  or  for  the  escape  of  foul  air  from  within. 
During  the  night,  the  windows  and  doors  are  closed,  and  the 
supply  of  air  fitted  for  respiration  becomes  exhausted  long  be- 
fore morning,  especially  if,  as  is  so  commonly  the  case,  there  be 
several  persons  sleeping  in  the  same  room.  Headaches,  rest- 
less slumbers,  nervousness  of  various  kinds,  palpitations,  op- 
pressed breathing,  and  loss  of  appetite,  are  no  unusual  effects 
of  defective  ventilation  in  the  houses  of  the  wealthy,  who,  at 
the  very  time,  may  be  commiserating  the  poor  for  their  small 
and  close  apartments.  It  is  indeed  time  that  architects  should 
wake  up,  and  think  of  constructing  houses  in  which  the  in- 
mates can  live  without  a  continued  infraction  of  the  laws,  by 
compliance  with  which  alone  they  can  enjoy  health  and  seren- 
ity of  mind.  Benevolent  individuals  and  societies  have  taken 
the  state  of  the  defective  lodgings  of  the  poor  into  considera- 
tion, and  have  set  about,  in  some  instances  with  entire  success, 
the  devising  and  execution  of  the  needful  remedies.  Let  us 
hope  that  the  rich  will,  in  due  time,  come  in  for  a  share  of 
this  well-directed  philanthropy. 

We  hear  much  of  applied  science,  but  the  community  has 
yet  to  learn  its  direction  towards  a  better  system  of  either  pub- 
lic or  private  hygiene.  Both  proprietors  and  builders  of 
houses  are,  for  the  most  part,  quite  innocent  of  the  desired 
knowledge  of  this  subject.  Division  of  rooms  for  business  or 
family  wants  in  the  interior,  and  decorations  externally  after 
some  order,  Greek  or  Gothic,  or  a  barbarous  blending  of  both, 
are  the  only  things  thought  of  in  relation  to  modern  structures. 
How  the  inmates  are  to  procure  an  adequate  and  continued 
supply  of  fresh  air,  and  how  to  get  clear  of  that  which  is  im- 
pure, are  not  even  secondary  matters :  they  are  sometimes 
discussed  as  curious  questions  of  philosophy,  but  seldom  with 
a  view  to  their  direct  bearing  on  health.  Wearied,  oppressed, 
and  giddy,  and  with  palpitating  hearts  and  hurried  breathing, 


96 

how  many,  after  leaving  a  church,  have  mistaken  their  really  dis- 
turbed states  of  the  physical  man  for  those  which  result  from 
the  workings  of  the  Spirit ;  and  have  retired  to  their  homes, 
fiill  of  terrors  for  the  state  of  their  soul,  when,  in  reality,  they 
were  suffering  from  a  disorder  of  their  corporeal  functions,  in- 
duced by  the  impure  and  half-poisoned  blood  circulating 
through  their  veins  ?  We  are  familiar  with  the  "  blue  Mon- 
day" of  dissipated  and  drunken  workmen  and  laborers,  who 
pay  the  penalty  of  a  recognized  gross  infraction  of  natural  laws 
on  the  preceding  Sunday,  but  we  are  not  often  aware  of  the 
well-defined  u  blue  Monday,"  as  exhibited  in  feelings  of  lan- 
guor, depression  of  spirits,  and  unevenness  of  temper  in  those 
who  have  sinned  against  these  same  natural  laws,  albeit  in  a 
different  manner,  by  their  three  goings  to  church,  including  an 
evening  service  on  the  Sabbath,  and  breathing  all  the  while 
an  impure  air.  Dr.  D.  B.  Reid,  who  visited  numerous  church- 
es in  hot  weather,  to  observe  the  effects  of  bad  air  on  the  con- 
gregations, gives  the  result  in  a  very  graphic  sketch,  which  we 
regret  not  having  room  to  insert.  We  would  refer  to  his  work, 
entitled  Illustrations  of  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Venti- 
lation, with  remarks  on  Warm  Air,  Exclusive  Lighting, 
and  the  Communication  of  Sound,  for  much  valuable  infor- 
mation on  the  entire  subject  embraced  in  our  present  notice. 

The  same  author  has  favored  the  public  with  a  more  recent 
treatise  on  Ventilation  in  American  Dwellings,  with  a 
series  of  illustrative  diagrams  ;  and  to  this  eminently  practical 
work,  Dr.  Elisha  Harris  has  contributed  an  Introductory 
Outline  of  the  Progress  of  Improvement  in  Ventilation. 
The  volume  is  replete  with  instruction  on  a  most  interesting, 
we  might  say  vital  topic. 

Dr.  E.  Harris,  after  stating  "the  imperative  necessity  of  giv- 
ing prompt  and  efficient  attention  to  the  removable  sources  of 
danger  and  disease  which  exist  in  our  communities,"  presents 
the  subject  in  a  very  lucid  manner  in  the  shape  of  the  follow- 
ing propositions : 


97 

"  First.  We  would  refer  to  the  fact  that  more  than  one  half 
the  entire  population  of  the  city  of  New  York  reside  in  crowd- 
ed tenement-houses,  and  that  there  is  no  statute  or  municipal 
law  regulating  the  construction,  ventilation,  or  the  space  al- 
lowed to  specified  numbers  of  residents  therein.  Hence 
crowding  such  structures  to  their  utmost  capacity  has  become 
the  rule  rather  than  the  exception.  And  it  may  here  be  stated, 
that  our  city  has  an  underground  or  cellar  population  of  more 
than  twenty-five  thousand  persons. 

"In  the  17th  Ward  alone,  there  are  1257  tenement- 
houses,  having  20,917  rooms,  which  are  occupied  by  10,123 
families,  embracing  a  total  number  of  51,172  persons  ;  thus 
giving  an  average  of  about  four  persons  to  each  suit  of  two 
apartments,  one  only  of  which  is  usually  occupied  as  a  dormi- 
tory, and  that  one  often  a  dark,  close  room,  of  a  capacity  only 
of  from  500  to  800  cubic  feet.  Now,  in  a  close  apartment  of 
only  600  cubic  feet,  a  single  person  cannot  spend  six  consecu- 
tive hours,  in  air  of  ordinary  temperature,  without  impair- 
ment to  health. 

"  Dr.  Reid's  estimate  of  ten  cubic  feet  of  pure  air  per  min- 
ute, for  the  respiration  of  an  adult  person,  .is  certainly  quite 
low  enough  for  an  average  of  comfort  and  safety,  and  with 
such  an  allowance,  the  air  in  such  an  apartment  would  become 
too  much  vitiated  for  healthy  respiration  at  the  expiration  of 
sixty  minutes  or  one  hour  ;  and  allowing  that  the  air  is  par- 
tially replenished  during  that  brief  period,  the  atmosphere 
would  be  decidedly  unwholesome  at  the  expiration  of  two  or 
three  hours.  Or,  taking  the  lowest  estimate  within  the  limits 
of  safety,  as  given  by  Dr.  Neill  Arnott,  viz.,  about  three 
cubic  feet  per  minute,  such  an  apartment  could  not  be  consid- 
ered a  healthy  sleeping-room  for  a  single  person,  much  less 
a  safe  dormitory  for  a  whole  family. 

4  In  some  of  the  lower  wards  of  the  city,  the  tenement- 
houses  are  much  more  densely  crowded  than  in  those  just 


98 

mentioned.  In  one  of  them,  containing  from  120  to  150  fam- 
ilies of  three  to  ten  persons  each,  there  are  but  about  forty 
feet  of  frontage  and  sunlight.  In  two  of  the  smallest  of  those 
apartments,  eight  cases  of  malignant  typhus  have  been  seen 
at  one  time.  And  at  the  last  visitation  of  cholera,  the  first 
cases  of  that  malady  occurred  in  that  pent-up  and  overcrowd- 
ed locality. 

"  Second,  Small-pox,  typhus  fever,  and  every  other  pesti- 
lence find  a  genial  and  prolific  soil  in  such  crowded,  'unventi- 
lated  structures  as  the  habitations  of  the  poor  in  our  city,  and 
from  them  the  germs  of  fatal  diseases  are  continually  conveyed 
to  the  dwellings  of  the  more  favored  classes. 

<c  Third,  The  fashionable  and  gregarious  custom  of  crowd- 
ing our  hotels  and  boarding-houses  is  becoming  a  hazardous 
practice,  unless  more  attention  is  given  to  the  hygienic  condi- 
tion and  wants  of  such  establishments — very  few  of  which 
have  hitherto  been  provided  with  any  thing  like  systematic  and 
efficient  ventilation,  or  perfect  drainage.  The  recent  fearful 
endemic  at  the  National  Hotel,  in  the  city  of  "Washington, 
should  teach  an  important  practical  lesson  on  this  subject. 

"  Fourth,  The  drainage  or  sewerage,  and  the  necessary 
measures  for  securing  general  cleanliness  and  a  pure  atmo- 
sphere, are  not  yet  suitably  provided  for  by  law. 

"  Fifth,  Architecture,  in  its  applications  to  private  resi- 
dences as  well  as  to  public  edifices,  has  not  yet  had  primary 
or  suitable  reference  to  man's  hygienic  interests.  Adaptations 
for  a  sufficient  supply  of  pure  air  and  sunlight  have  been  sa- 
crificed to  architectural  effect  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  a  mis- 
taken economy  on  the  other. 

"  The  vital  importance  of  a  correct  understanding  and  esti- 
mation of  such  considerations  as  the  foregoing,  must  be  man- 
ifest to  all  who  intelligently  investigate  such  subjects  ;  and  to 
the  political  economist,  the  merchant,  and  the  moralist,  these 


99 


topics  are  invested  with  relations  quite  as  interesting  as  those 
that  lead  the  physician  and  the  philanthropist  to  study  them." 
Dr.  Eeid  was  one  of  the  Commissioners  appointed  by 
Queen  Victoria  for  inquiry  into  the  state  of  large  towns  and 
populous  Districts  ;  and  his  opinions  are  founded  on  large  ex- 
perience 

In  /Schools. — The  greatest  sufferers  from  the  general  ignor- 
ance of  elementary  physiology  and  hygiene  among  architects, 
controllers  and  teachers,  are  children  in  schools,  both  public 
and  private  ;  the  latter  just  now  probably  the  more  punished 
of  the  two.  We  need  not  repeat  from  the  report  of  the  Com- 
missioners just  mentioned,  the  distressing  particulars  of  the 
wretched  state  of  the  cottage  schools  in  the  different  parts  of 
England,  nor  of  the  dame  and  public  schools  of  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  some  years  ago.  Abundant  matter  for  comment 
and  stricture  is  offered  to  observation  in  the  schools  of  th.e 
United  States.  The  fate  of  the  school  children  of  poor  or  im- 
provident parents,  who  reside  in  narrow  streets,  courts,  or  al- 
leys, is  peculiarly  hard ;  for,  after  suffering  from  partial  suffo- 
cation during  the  night  and  a  part  of  the  day  in  their  own 
wretched  homes,  they  are  subjected  to  a  similar,  if  not  more 
injurious  process  in  their  school-rooms,  into  which  they  may 
be  said  to  be  entrapped,  and  thus  cruelly  treated  under  the 
show  of  kindness  and  regard  for  their  welfare. 

Of  all  the  various  edifices  in  which  a  number  of  persons  are 
gathered  together,  and  for  whose  protection  and  benefit  an  effi- 
cient system  of  ventilation  is  needful,  none  are  of  such  para- 
mount importance  as  school-houses,  and  none  have  been  so 
generally,  and  we  might  add  so  cruelly  neglected.  The  child- 
ren who  sit  in  them  for  many  hours  daily,  require,  above  all 
other  members  of  the  community,  a  continued  supply  of  fresh 
air  for  their  healthy  growth,  and  to  allow  of  their  tender 
brains  being  tasked  without  detriment  and  continual  danger 


.  iff 

r  VV  Li«  i  1 


100 


to  their  intellects,  and  a  depression  of  spirits  and  languor  so 
opposed  to  their  instinctive  feelings'  and  tendencies.  The 
originally  indolent  boy  becomes  at  school  a  hater  of  lessons 
and  books,  associating  as  he  does  with  it  all  that  is  wearisome 
and  dull ;  while  the  boy  desirous  to  learn,  and  emulous  of  dis- 
tinction, becomes  exhausted  by  his  brain-work,  and*his  nerv- 
ous system  acquires  a  morbid  sensibility  which  remains  with 
him  during  all  his  after-life.  The  unrenewed  air  of  a  school- 
room soon  becomes  charged  with  the  noxious  exhalations  both 
from  the  lungs  and  the  skin.  The  latter  organ,  in  a  vast  ma- 
jority of  the  poorer  children,  and  in  not  a  few  of  the  wealthier 
class,  becomes,  for  want  of  due  attention,  almost  coated 
with  perspirable  and  other  matters,  and  is  a  source  of  contin- 
ual poisoning  of  the  air  of  an  ill-ventilated  room.  The  archi- 
tectural arrangement  of  nearly  all  the  schools  in  England,  as 
far  as  they  were  examined  some  years  ago,  was,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, deplorably  defective,  especially  where  the  scholars 
slept  in  the  building.  Among  many  instances  of  the  same 
kind,  we  may  state  that,  in  Manchester,  the  blue-coat  boys 
suffered  from  scurvy,  which  was  removed  in  a  great  measure 
by  an  amended  diet,  and  by  ventilation  of  the  dormitories 
after  a  fixed  method.  But  it  is  not  necessary  to  look  abroad 
to  find  a  general  neglect  of  school  hygiene,  evidenced  even  in 
what  all  call  first-class  seminaries,  as  well  as  in  those  of  less 
pretension  and  with  humbler  inmates. 

In  Hospitals. — All  medical  men  must  be  aware,  at  the  pre- 
sent time,  how  much  the  mortality  is  increased  in  hospitals 
and  asylums  of  every  kind  by  a  confined  air,  rendered  nox- 
ious by  want  of  ventilation.  The  greatest  skill  on  the  part 
of  the  professional  corps,  the  most  attentive  administration  of 
well-selected  medicines  by  intelligent  and  humane  nurses,  are 
nullified  by  the  inmates  of  a  hospital  breathing  an  air  not  con- 
tinually renewed,  and  which,  if  allowed  to  remain  stationary, 
even  for  a  very  short  period,  becomes  charged  with  einana- 


101 

tions,  gaseous  and  animal,  of  the  most  deleterious  kind.  It  is 
not  too  strong  language  to  say,  that  a  renewal  of  the  air  in 
hospitals,  which  implies  adequate  ventilation,  is  a  question  of 
life  or  death  :  every  hospital  in  which  the  atmospheric  air  re- 
mains vitiated,  so  far  from  being  a  "benefit  to  the  poorer  class- 
es, becomes  a,  public  calamity.  Better  that  its  inmates  should 
remain  in  their  own  wretched  tenements,  deprived  of  all  med- 
ical attendance,  than  to  be  subjected  to  the  concentrated  poi- 
son of  the  large  wards  of  a  hospital.  Many  years  ago,  during 
a  season  of  epidemic  visitation  of  small-pox  in  Philadelphia,  it 
was  found  that  the  mortality  from  this  disease  was  greater 
among  the  inmates  of  the  hospital  at  Bush  Hill,  of  which  your 
reporter  was  at  the  time  the  chief  medical  attendant,  than 
among  the  sick  in  the  city,  many  of  them  living  in  confined 
courts  and  dirty  alleys,  who  came  under  his  care  as  dispensary- 
patients.  As  illustrative  of  the  contrasted  effects  of  crowding 
and  bad  ventilation  on  the  one  hand,  and  of  improved  ventila- 
tion on  the  other,  reference  may  be  made  to  the  Lying-in  Hos- 
pital, Dublin,  in  which  there  died  2,944  children  out  of  7,650 ; 
but  after  ventilation,  the  deaths,  in  the  same  period  of  time, 
and  in  a  like  number  of  children,  amounted  only  to  279. 
The  quantity  and  poisonous  nature  of  the  exhalations 
continually  given  out  in  the  wards  of  a  hospital  occu- 
pied by  the  sick,  are  strikingly  shown  by  Montfalcon  and 
Poliniere  in  a  treatise  on  the  Health  of  Great  Cities,*  when 
speaking  of  the  Hotel  Dieu,  the  great  hospital  at  Lyons. 
The  large  fever  wards  of  this  building  represent  a  cross,  at 
the  centre  of  which  is  a  vestibule  surmounted  by  a  dome  and 
a  cupola  ;  in  it  is  placed  an  altar  of  marble,  over  which  is  a 
smaller  dome.  From  the  wards  thus  communicating  with  the 
vestibule,  the  impure  air  and  exhalations  escape  into  the  dome 
and  cupola,  which  act  as  so  many  funnels,  and  thence  through 
suitable  openings  they  find  exit  into  the  outer  air.  The 

*  Trait6  de  la  Salubrite  dans  lea  Grandes  Villes,  suivie  de  1'Hygiene  de  Lyon. 


102 

amount  of  mephitic  air  accumulated  in  the  dome  and  cupola, 
and  afterwards  expelled,  is  incredible,  as  no  one  could  form 
the  least  idea  of  it  when  visiting  the  wards  and  "breathing  an 
air  exempt  from  all  bad  smell  in  them.  But  if  workmen  at 
this  very  time  ascend  to  the  cupola,  especially  near  its  top, 
they  will  suffer  so  much  from  the  close  and  foul  air  which  has 
risen  from  below,  as  to  be  unable  to  continue  their  work,  at 
the  longest,  for  more  than  half  an  hour.  Sometimes  even 
after  half  an  hour's  delay  in  this  infectious  medium,  they  come 
away  pale  and  oppressed,  and  so  disordered  that  sometimes 
they  sink  down  in  a  state  of  syncope.  Many  workmen  are 
obliged  to  succeed  one  another,  to  perform  the  work  of  a  single 
man. 

In  Work-shops  and  Factories. — The  work-shops  of  persons 
engaged  in  various  mechanical  employments  are  for  the  most 
part  exceedingly  deficient  on  the  score  of  ventilation,  and  their 
inmates  in  consequence  encounter  much  suffering  and  disease. 
Dr.  Southwood  Smith  relates  many  distressing  details  of  thia 
nature,  which  came  under  his  own  observation.  There  was 
a  room  in  London,  sixteen  or  eighteen  yards  long,  and  seven 
or  eight  yards  wide,  in  which  eighty  working  tailors  sat,  and 
so  closely  to  each  other,  as  to  be  nearly  knee  to  knee  ;  one 
witness  told  of  his  having  known  young  men,  tailors  from  the 
country,  faint  away  in  the  shop  from  the  excessive  heat  and 
closeness.  It  was  of  frequent  occurrence  in  such  work-shops, 
that  suits  of  clothes  of  a  light  color  were  spoiled  from  the 
perspiration  of  the  hand,  and  the  dust  and  flue  which  arose 
during  the  work.  In  winter,  these  places  are  still  more  un- 
healthy, as  the-  heat  from  the  candles — it  may  now  be  said 
gas — and  the  closeness  are  much  greater.  The  entrance  of 
fresh  air  through  an  open  window  is  objected  to  by  those 
nearest  to  it  on  account  of  the  draught,  and  generally  they  pre- 
vail in  keeping  out  the  cold — that  is,  the  fresh  air.  The 
effects  of  continued  exposure  to  this  impure  and  deleterious 


103 

air,  were  to  drive  away  many  before  their  labors  were  over, 
and  to  take  away  the  appetite  of  those  unaccustomed  to  the 
place.  "  The  natural  effect  of  the  depression,"  continues  the 
witness  before  the  Commissioners,  "was  that  we  had  recourse 
to  drink  as  a  stimulant ;  gin  being  taken  instead  of  food.  I 
should  say  the  greater  part  of  the  habit  of  drinking  was  pro- 
duced by  the  state  of  the  place  of  work,  because  when  men 
work  by  themselves,  or  only  two  or  three  together,  in  cooler 
and  less  close  places,  there  is  scarcely  any  drinking  between 
them." 

Seamstresses,  &c. — What  has  been  said  of  the  journeymen 
tailors,  applies  with  too  much  force  to  the  individuals  of  the 
other  sex,  who  work  in  milliner  and  dressmaker  shops,  with 
the  additional  aggravation  of  their  being  sometimes  kept  up 
late  at  night  to  finish  the  dress  promised  by  the  employer  for 
the  next  day.  Even  when  working  alone  in  their  small  and 
close  rooms,  from  morn  to  night,  in  a  half-bent  posture,  they 
are  objects  of  deserved  pity,  as  victims  to  the  sin  of  a  neglect 
of  hygiene. 

Printing  Offices,  in  which  germinate  so  many  young 
Franklins,  do  not  exhibit,  if  we  may  judge  from  the  indiffer- 
ence of  those  who  work  within  them,  the  shrewdness  of  their 
professed  model,  in  either  devising  or  availing  themselves  of 
known  measures  for  the  promotion  of  health,  foremost  of  which 
is  attention  to  the  respiratory  function.  If  it  be  true,  as 
alleged,  that  pressmen  are  less  liable  than  compositors  to  pul- 
monary consumption,  we  have  additional  confirmation  of  the 
fact,  pointed  out  by  Dr.  Guy,  of  the  greater  frequency  of  this 
disease  among  those  who  are  habitually  exposed  to  a  close 
and  impure  air,  and  especially  if,  at  the  same  time,  they  are 
deprived  of  all  exercise.  The  saving  nature  of  this  last  is 
evinced  under  the  circumstances  just  stated. 

Nautical  hygiene  shows  that  outbreaks  of  cholera  have 
occurred  aboard  ship  from  defective  ventilation. 


104 

Pulmonary  Diseases  from  Defective  Ventilation. — It  has 
been  observed  that,  as  a  general  rule,  the  frequency  of  pulmo- 
nary diseases  in  England  is  greater  among  the  males  than 
among  the  females,  in  the  proportion  of  100  to  94 — as  regards 
the  country  generally  ;  but  that  in  particular  districts  and 
towns,  the  greatest  death-rates  from  these  causes  are  on  the 
side  of  the  females.  The  difference  is  attributable  to  the  con- 
finement in  factories  or  in  shops,  and  even  in  their  own 
houses,  of  this  part  of  the  population,  while  engaged  in  mak- 
ing textile  or  other  fabrics.  ~n  three  of  the  registration  dis- 
ricts  in  which  this  difference  prevails,  a  good  proportion  of 
the  adult  females  are  engaged  in  industrial  manufacturing 
pursuits — these  being  chiefly  conducted  at  their  own  homes. 
Exceptions,  not  yet  explained,  occur  in  this  matter  in  some 
counties  in  England.  We  are,  after  all,  safe  in  adopting  the 
opinion  expressed  by  Mr.  Simon,  namely  :  "  In  proportion  as 
the  male  and  female  populations  are  severally  attracted  to 
indoor^branches  of  industry,  in  such  proportion,  other  things 
being  equal,  their  respective  death-rates  by  phthisis  are  in- 
creased." In  the  lace-making  districts,  the  female  death- 
loss  seems  always  to  exceed  the  male.  "  The  pulmonary 
death-rate  is  usually  excessive  in  towns  where  both  males  and 
females  are  largely  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  textile 
fabrics ;  but  the  difference  in  the  mortality  of  the  sexes  is 
rarely  great."  So  in  Manchester,  which,  as  one  of  the  cotton 
manufacturing  districts,  has  a  high  pulmonary  mortality,  the 
difference  in  the  death-rates  of  males  and  females  is  slight ; 
both  being  largely  engaged  in  the  industrial  occupations  of  the 
place.  In  comparing  this  state  of  things  with  what  occurs  in 
Liverpool,  we  find  that  city,  with  a  higher  mortality  still, 
does  not  show  it  so  much  in  its  female  population,  who  are 
not  engaged  in  any  special  employment. 

Defect  of  Light. — Next  to  the  apparent  determination  to 
exclude  fresh  air  from  the  habitations  of  man,  and  from  all  the 


105 

places  in  which  people  assemble  for  the  purposes  of  .religious 
worship,  business,  and  pleasure,  is  the  apparent  determination 
to  prevent  full  access  of  light  to  the  human  body.  The  para- 
mount importance  of  light  to  vegetation,  so  that  through  it 
plants  acquire  not  only  their  verdure  but  the  variegated  colors 
which  we  admire  in  their  flowers,  as  well  as  their  requisite 
firmness  of  texture  and  the  distinctive  flavor  of  their  juices, 
seems  to  have  received  only  a  passing  application,  suggestive 
of  its  producing  analogous  effects  on  animals.  The  bleaching 
and  sickly  character  of  vegetables,  which  follow  the  privation 
of  solar  light,  and  their  sleep  during  the  night,  showing  great- 
ly diminished  vital  activity,  find  their  parallels  in  the  influence 
of  the  same  cause  on  the  animal  economy.  Comparative  phy- 
siology furnishes  additional  proof  in  the  same  line  of  argu- 
ment. When  the  eggs  of  a  frog  are  put  in  water,  in  a  vase 
with  opaque  sides  and  top,  so^as  to  exclude  the  light,  they 
evince  no  change  ;  whereas,  eggs  in  water  of  the  same  quan- 
tity and  temperature,  exposed  to  the  light,  undergo  a  gradual 
development,  and  exhibit  in  due  time  young  tadpoles.  The 
subsequent  transformation  of  these  beings  is  not  prevented, 
but  it  is  retarded  by  their  being  kept  in  darkness  Edwards, 
who  made  these  experiments,  thought  that  in  countries  in 
which  nudity  was  allowed  by  the  nature  of  the  climate,  expo- 
sure of  the  whole  surface  of  the  body  to  light,  or  to  inso- 
lation, as  we  may  term  it,  was  very  favorable  to  good  bodily 
conformation.  Humbolt  sesms  to  incline  to  the  same  opinion. 
He  asserted  that  deformity  and  deviations  from  the  natural 
standard  of  symmetry  are  very  rare  in  certain  races  of  men, 
especially  among  those  with  a  highly-tinted  dermoid  system. 
The  sinister  effects  of  want  of  the  sun's  light  in  underground 
apartments,  and  in  houses,  narrow  alleys,  and  in  deep  courts, 
almost  ^blocked  out  from  its  genial  access,  ought  to  share 
largely  with  humidity  and  impure  air  in  the  production  of 
scrofula  and  scurvy,  and  must  count  its  full  share  in* the 


106 

etiology  of  anaemia  and  chlorosis,  and  of  the  pallid  and  earthy- 
colored  skin  of  miners,  and  the  tenants  of  prisons,  as  also  of 
those  persons  who  lead  a  sedentary  life  in  ill-lighted  habita- 
tions. Dr.  Brown,  of  Chatham,  near  London,  calls  attention 
(Sanitary  Review,  April,  1858)  to  the  injurious  effects  of 
underground  kitchens.  He  would  have  large  room  for  com- 
ment in  some  of  our  cities,  especially  New  York,  in  which 
there  are  not  only  underground  kitchens,  but  where  also  it  is 
quite  common  to  meet  with  dining,  and  sometimes  sleeping- 
rooms  thus  situated.  This  vicious  architectural  arrangement 
is  too  common  also  in  Philadelphia.  Dampness  is  generally 
associated  with  the  want  of  light,  and  performs  a  not  unim- 
portant part  in  causing  disease,  by  withdrawing  from  the  body, 
as  Dr.  Brown  supposes,  "its  normal  proportion  of  electricity, 
and  thus  occasions  disorders  that  depend  upon  diminished 
nerve  force.  These  are  ague,  neuralgia,  certain  forms  of  rheu- 
matism, epilepsy,  chorea,  and  asthma,  with  some  other  affec- 
tions, such  as  dyspepsia."  The  servant  girls  of  London  ex- 
emplify, in  their  etiolated  condition,  and  their  breathlessness, 
as  well  as  the  anaemia  under  which  they  suffer,  the  evil  effects 
of  dampness  and  of  deprivation  of  the  solar  rays.  The  func- 
tions peculiar  to  their  sex  are  carried  on  imperfectly,  or  are 
absolutely  suspended ;  hence  the  headache,  the  pains  in  the 
side,  the  palpitation,  and  the  dropsical  ankles  so  frequently 
witnessed  in  this  class.  Organic  disease  of  the  heart  is  origin- 
ated by  these  causes  in  some  instances.  Another  considera- 
tion stated  by  Dr.  Brown,  but  not  bearing  on  our  present 
theme,  is  the  exhaustion  attendant  on  the  frequent  ascent 
and  descent  of  stairs. 

Dr.  Elisha  Hams,  in  his  replies  to  the  New  York  Commit- 
tee, lays  great  stress  on  the  privation  of  sunlight  to  a  vast 
proportion  of  the  population  of  the  city,  "  not  only  in  work- 
shops, in  warehouses,  in  counting-rooms,  and  in  basements ; 
but  in  the  modern  tenement-houses,  the  hotels,  the  school- 


107 

rooms,  the  churches,  and  the  private  dwellings."  He  adds, 
and  with  becoming  warmth  of  language :  "So  important  is 
light  to  human  health,  that  it  should  be  made  a  legal  offense 
for  any  party  to  deprive  a  neighboring  dwelling  of  light."  He 
repeats  an  observation  of  Sir  John  Wylie,  for  many  years 
physician  to  the  Emperors  Alexander  and  Nicholas,  of  Russia, 
viz. :  that  in  a  certain  barrack  at  St.  Petersburg,  the  mor- 
tality on  the  dark  side,  that  from  which  sunlight  was  always 
excluded,  was  two  hundred  times  greater  than  on  that  side  on 
which  the  sun  shone,  and  penetrated  into  the  windows  and 
doors  of  the  apartments. 

THE  REMEDIES. — After  a  tolerably  full  notice  of  the 
impurity,  and,  still  worse,  the  virulent  properties  and  ef- 
fects of  the  air,  caused  by  overcrowding  and  defective 
ventilation,  we  are  the  better  prepared  to  inquire  into 
the  means  of  the  cure,  and  still  better,  because  acting  on 
a  larger  scale,  the  prevention  of  the  evils  described.  The 
measures  for  meeting  this  object  must  be  undertaken  and 
carried  out  on  a  scale  commensurate  with  the  extent  of 
the  obstructions  to  be  overcome.  They  require  for  their 
successful  performance,  discreet  but  firm  legislation.  First 
should  be  carried  into  effect  the  recommendation  of  the  Eng- 
lish commissioners  already  noticed,  viz. :  to  empower  the  local 
and  municipal  administrative  bodies,  to  raise  money  for  the 
purchase  of  property,  with  a  view  of  opening  thoroughfares 
and  widening  streets,  courts,  and  alleys,  so  as  to  improve  the 
ventilation  of  the  densely-crowded  districts  of  towns,  as  well 
as  to  increase  the  general  convenience  of  traffic.  Practical 
suggestions  in  this  line  occur  to  us  on  learning  the  steps  taken 
by  the  present  Emperor  of  France,  for  the  improvement  and 
embellishment  of  Paris.  There  may  be  a  difference  of  opinion 
respecting  the  motives  which  influence  the  French  ruler  in  the 
great  changes  which  have  been  brought  about,  and  others  still 
in  progress  and  projected,  in  the  interior  of  the  capital ;  but 


108 


of  one  thing  we  may  be  well  assured,  that  tfce  public  health 
will  gain  immensely,  and  this  through  the  external  ventila- 
tion procured  by  the  new  wide  and  magnificent  streets,  which 
intersect,  and,  in  degree,  break  up  the  crowded  dens  of  miser- 
able tenements,  in  dark  and  narrow  streets,  occupied  by  a  pop- 
ulation ready  at  any  hour  to  engage  in  scenes  of  public  revo- 
lution or  of  local  outbreak  and  bloodshed.  With  a  view  of 
securing  better  ventilation,  the  Commissioners  farther  recom- 
mended, that  courts  and  alleys  be  not  built  of  a  less  width 
than  twenty  feet,  to  be  open  at  both  ends  ;  and  that  they  have 
an  opening  of  not  less  than  ten  feet  from  the  ground  upwards, 
at  each  end ;  the  width  of  the  court  being  in  proportion  to  the 
height  of  the  houses.  Streets  are  not  to  be  of  less  width  than 
thirty  feet. 

Local  acts,  as  authorized  by  acts  of  Parliament,  have  al- 
ready been  passed  in  Liverpool,  Leeds,  and  London,  and 
doubtless  in  other  cities  and  towns,  since  our  attention  was 
last  directed  to  this  point,  prohibiting  the  use  of  cellars  in 
dwellings,  unless  they  are  so  constructed  as  to  provide  pro- 
tection against  the  existence  of  the  evils  which  we  have  just 
pointed  out.  The  Commissioners  farther  recommended  that, 
after  a  limited  period,  the  use  of  cellars  as  dwellings  be  pro- 
hibited, unless  the  rooms  are  of  certain  dimensions,  and  are 
provided  with  a  fire-place,  and  window  of  sufficient  size,  made 
to  open,  and  that  said  dwelling  have  an  open  space  in  front ; 
and  also,  that  the  foundation  be  properly  drained.  Prohibi- 
tions have  been  suggested,  if  not  laid  down  by  actual  enact- 
ment, against  building  houses  back  to  back — a  vicious  practice, 
which  effectually  prevents  both  a  deep  supply  of  light,  and 
any  adequate  ventilation  by  a  through  current  of  air  through 
each  house. 

"The  French  Government  has  appropriated  10,000,000 
francs  to  encourage  the  building  of  workmen's  dwellings. 
Many  model  cottages  are  now  being  erected  in  the  neighbor- 


109 


hood  of  Paris ;  each  is  designed  for  four  families,  and  each 
containing  four  rooms,  is  to  be  let  at  150  francs  a  year.  They 
are  to  be  exclusively  for  laboring  men  and  their  families,  and 
to  be  supplied  with  water  and  gas.  One  hundred  and  fifty 
more  of  these  chalets  are  to  be  erected  in  and  about  Paris  ; 
and  already  15,000  applications  have  been  made  for  them  to 
the  Administration. 

"At  Mulhouse,  a  society  had  expended,  up  to  the  close  of 
1855,  900,000  francs,  for  a  like  object;  the  Government 
having  contributed  150,000  francs. 

"At  Genoa,  where  the  municipality  expended  12,500,000 
francs,  during  the  last  invasion  of  the  Cholera,  chiefly  for  the 
relief  of  those  living  in  defective,  unhealthy  dwellings,  a  com- 
pany has  been  formed  to  erect  houses  for  workmen,  in  which 
the  King  of  Sardinia  has  taken  150  shares. 

"  At  Berlin,  there  is  a  Building  Society,  under  the  patron- 
age of  the  Prince  of  Prussia,  with  a  capital  of  200,000  thalers, 
which  yields  4  per  cent,  on  the  investment.  It  has  now  202 
occupied  dwellings,  and  27  work-shops. 

"  In  Tuscany,  the  Grand  Duke,  in  October,  1844,  issued  a 
decree,  empowering  all  municipal  magistrates  within  his  terri- 
tory, who  may  deem  it  expedient,  to  form  a  commission  for 
providing  the  means  of  cleansing  and  rendering  wholesome  the 
dwellings  actually  let  or  occupied  by  any  other  person  than 
the  proprietor,  which  are  in  such  a  state  as  to  be  dangerous  to 
the  health  of  the  occupants  or  community. 

"There  are  also  societies  to  improve  the  dwellings  of  the 
working  men  at  Parma,  Dresden,  Brandenburg,  Bremen, 
Chemnitz,  Locle  in  Switzerland,  and  many  other  places. 

"  The  houses  erected  are  incomparably  better  than  the  ordi- 
nary dwellings  for  the  same  class ;  the  rents  are  lower,  with 


the  privilege  generally  to  the  tenants  of  becoming  propri- 
etors."* • 

Model  Houses. — After  State  and  municipal  governments 
shall  have  done  their  duty,  by  wise  and  liberal  enactments, 
and  providing  means  for  giving  them  effect,  a  large  field  will 
still  be  left  for  the  exercise  of  individual  benevolence,  or  of 
voluntary  associated  effort,  to  carry  on  a  series  of  auxiliary 
measures,  which  are  necessary  to  the  completion  of  those  of  a 
public  and  administrative  nature.  Among  these  it  is  pleasant 
to  be  able  to  announce,  not  merely  the  inception  of  plausible 
plans  but  their  already  successful  execution,  as  in  the  erection 
of  model-houses  in  town,  and  model-cottages  in  the  country, 
for  the  use  of  the  working  classes  in  England.  The  new 
buildings,  though  small,  are  on  a  footing  of  comfort  and  sanitary 
arrangements,  as  to  a  due  supply  of  water,  warming,  and  ven- 
tilation, equal,  if  not  superior,  to  larger  mansions  inhabited  by 
the  wealthy.  The  trials  so  far  verify  a  remark  made  by  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Girdlestone,  who  has  taken  an  active  and  praiseworthy 
part  in  sanitary  reform  :  "  that  one  of  the  most  efficacious 
means  of  elevating  the  condition  of  the  laboring  classes  is  the 
improvement  of  their  dwellings."  At  Birkenhead,  opposite 
Liverpool,  dwellings  have  been  erected  in  a  style  so  neat  as  to 
approach  to  elegance,  by  the  Dock  Company,  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  workmen  employed  in  the  construction  of  the 
docks  and  warehouses  of  that  new  and  flourishing  town. 
Tenements  have  also  been  erected  at  the  same  place  by  Mr. 
William  Laird,  called  "  Morpeth  Buildings,"  and  others  by 
Mr.  Robert  Hughes ;  the  former  consisting  of  sixty-four,  the 
latter  of  seventy  dwellings.  The  first  is  built  on  the  Scotch 
plan,  in  flats,  or  suites  of  rooms  on  a  floor,  and  constitute  eight 
blocks,  each  block  consisting  of  eight  dwellings.  The  blocks 

*  The  Fourteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  New  York  Association  for  Im- 
proving the  Condition  of  the  Poor,  for  the  year  1857. 


Ill 

are  four  stories  high,  with  no  yard  or  cellar,  and  each  flat  is 
divided  into  two  dwellings.  Each  dwelling  consists  of  three 
rooms — kitchen,  parlor,  and  bed-room,  or  two  bed-rooms.  Th$ 
kitchen  is  provided  with  a  range  and  oven.  Separated  from 
the  kitchen,  by  a  well-fitting  door,  is  a  water-closet,  with  an 
abundant  supply  of  water  for  this  and  all  other  purposes. 
Through  the  centre  of  each  block,  from  top  to  bottom,  runs  a 
square  shaft,  containing  the  water  and  gas-pipes  belonging  to 
the  eight  dwellings.  A  small  iron  door,  about  ten  inches 
square,  is  fixed  to  one  corner  ot  a  recess,  close  to  the  ground, 
through  which  all  the  dust  and  dirt  are  swept ;  the  dust-shaft 
receives  the  dust  from  all  the  eight  dwellings  by  eight  similar 
openings,  and*  decends  to  a  very  large  dust  cellar  beneath  the 
level  of  the  house,'  from  which  it  is  removed  at  stated  periods. 
Each  house  is  ventilated  by  two  air-bricks — that  is,  a  space 
equal  to  the  size  of  a  brick  is  left  open  for  the  admission  of 
ah,  covered  within  and  without  by  an  iron  grating,  and  capa- 
ble of  being  closed  by  an  iron  shutter,  if  necessary.  One  of 
these  openings  is  placed  near  the  ceiling,  for  the  escape  of 
vitiated  or  heated  air.  There  is  only  one  appliance,  external 
to  the  person,  wanting  in  these  houses,  viz. :  the  bath.  In 
New  York,  tenements  of  this  description  have  been  con- 
structed ;  and,  where  ground  is  so  valuable,  and  the  popula- 
tion so  dense,  in  some  of  the  worst  districts,  they  must  be 
regarded  with  favor,  although  they  may  allow  of  but  compar- 
atively limited  external  ventilation. 

Model  lodging-houses  have  likewise  been  built  in  London 
and  other  places  with  the  most  satisfactory  results.  The  * 
houseless,  the  destitute,  and  the  very  poor  are  comfortably 
lodged,  at  the  same  time  that  they  escape  the  contamination 
both  of  disease  and  vice,  for  a  very  small  sum,  but  which  is 
remunerative  to  the  proprietor.  At  a  meeting,  some  years 
back,  of  the  "  Society  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the 
Working  Classes"  Prince  Albert  presiding,  it  was  stated  by 


112 

Lord  Ashley,  that  the  new  lodging-houses  gave  nightly  lodg- 
ing, with  every  accommodation  for  cleanliness  and  decency,  at 
Jhe  rate  of  four  pence  (eight  cents)  a  night ;  so  entire  was  the 
success  and  so  remunerative  was  the  profit  obtained,  that 
upon  a  sum  of  about  13,000  or  14,000  pounds  sterling 
(65,000  to  70,000  dollars)  expended  on  these  lodging-houses, 
they  were  now  receiving  an  income  of  very  nearly  1500 
pounds,  or  (7500  dollars)  a  year.  Great  improvements  have 
been  brought  about  in  common  lodging-houses  throughout  the 
kingdom  by  Lord  Graftenbury's  act,  as  it  is  called. 

With  such  examples  of  successful  sanitary  reform  before 
them,  the  people  of  the  city  of  New  York  need  not  hesitate 
day  before  entering  on  a  similar  course,  and  thus  regain  *•  • 
high  health-rate  which  it  once  enjoyed,  realizing  the  benefits 
due  to  its  naturally  favorable  situation,  and  to  certain  hygienic 
measures  which  have  been  completed  on  a  large  scale  at  great 
cost.  In  the  words  of  the  Committee  of  Investigation  of  the 
health  department  of  the  city  of  New  York,  we  can  say :  "A 
healthful  river  flows  beneath  its  streets  and  avenues,  supply- 
ing every  habitation  with  sufficient  water  to  allay  thirst,  to 
prepare  food,  and  to  promote  cleanliness.  The  island  on 
which  it  stands  is  laved  by  two  noble  rivers,  whose  tides  uplift 
and  cleanse  the  respective  streams.  Its  sewerage  is  advancing 
with  rapid  stretches  from  street  to  street,  and  the  fresh  breezes 
from  the  ocean  temper  the  coldness  and  moderate  the  heat  of 
its  climate." 

MEANS  OF  VENTILATION. — When  persons  speak  of  the 
necessity  of  fresh  air  for  health,  they  are  not  always  aware  of 
the  various  purposes  which  it  serves  in  the  animal  economy. 
It  is  a  "  thing,"  a  substance  to  be  weighed  and  measured  as 
we  would  water.  It  is  a  food,  the  introduction  of  which  into 
the  lungs  is  more  necessary  than  that  of  the  substances  com- 
monly reckoned  as  food  which  are  introduced  into  the  stomach. 
The  call  for  the  aerial  food  is  incessant,  allows  of  no  pause , 


113 

that  for  the  solid  and  liquid  food  is  periodical  and  allows  of 
postponement  for  many  hours.  Using  the  terse  language  of 
a  recent  writer,  when  speaking  of  the  air:  "It  affords 
mechanical  support ;  it  is  a  heat-modifying  medium ;  it  swal- 
lows all  gases  exposed  to  it ;  it  supplies  a  food  to  man,  out  of 
which  he  is  in  part  built  up ;  it  feeds  him  with  the  active 
principle  by  which  the  warmth  of  his  body  is  sustained.  The 
chief  sustaining  element  of  the  air  inspired  in  breathing,  is 
the  oxygen,  which  forms  a  fifth  part  of  the  whole  of  the 
atmospheric  sea."  The  minute  terminations  of  the  branches  of 
the  bronchia,  themselves  ramifying  from  the  windpipe,  and 
called  air-cells,  amount  to  about  six  hundred  millions.  The 
air  in  these  cells,  and  chiefly  its  oxygenous  portion,  permea- 
tes their  sides  and  enters  those  of  the  minute  blood-vessels, 
which  are  ramified  over  them,  and  thus  finds  entrance  into 
the  blood  with  which  it  mixes,  and  which  it  so  changes  as  to 
fit  this  vital  fluid  for  the  nutrition  and  building  up  of  the 
new  and  assisting  to  remove  the  old  materials  of  the  organs. 
While  the  blood  is  thus  changed  by  the  introduction  of  oxy- 
gen, it  gives  off, 'at  the  same  time,  its  gaseous  refuse  in  the 
form  of  carbonic  acid  and  animal  exhalations.  There  is  no 
tampering  with  the  respiratory  wants  :  the  lungs  must  have 
their  due  supply  of  pure  air,  or  the  entire  animal  organism 
suffers — the  lungs  suffer,  the  heart  suffers,  the  brain  suffers, 
and  the  mind  works  slowly ;  the  stomach  is  weakened  in  its 
functions ;  muscular  movement  is  enfeebled ;  the  senses  are 
dull ;  the  natural  color  of  health  is  replaced  by  pallor.  The 
movements  of  inspiration  and  expiration,  which  make  up  re- 
spiration, constitute  the  natural  ventilation  of  the  living  frame. 
This  living  ventilation  is  carried  on  unceasingly  from  birth  to 
death,  by  the  infant  as  well  as  by  the  adult,  by  the  profoundest 
philosopher  as  well  as  the  solitary  artisan  in  his  close  polluted 
atmosphere,  or  by  the  sailor  nursed  amid  storms,  in  a  pure  and 
invigorating  air.  Whether  the  circumambient  air  be  pure  or 


pestilential,  we  drink  of  it  twenty  times  a  minute  ;  if  of  the 
latter  kind,  we  look  old  in  our  youth ;  if  of  the  former,  we 
maintain  the  appearance  of  youth  in  old  age.  The  average 
chance  of  living  to  the  proverbial  age  of  threescore  years  and 
ten  may  be  considered  the  measure  of  the  purity  of  the  air  we 
breathe.* 

Different  Modes. — All  the  different  modes  for  ventilation 
are  reducible  to  three  heads :  1.  To  ventilate  by  heat,  or  by 
a  chemical  process.  2.  By  pumping,  or  a  mechanical  process. 
3.  By  the  pressure  and  movements  of  the  atmosphere 
without  let  or  hindrance,  f  Dr.  Reid,  both  in  his  work  before 
mentioned  and  in  his  Report  to  the  Commissioners  on  the 
Northern  Coal  Mine  Districts,  enters  fully  into  this  interesting 
question,  which  he  presents  under  the  following  aspect : 
"Ventilation  depends  essentially  on  three  conditions:  the 
quality  of  the  external  air ;  the  quantity  that  can  be  made  to 
flow  through  it  in  a  given  time,  including  the  mode  of  distri- 
bution and  the  regulation  of  which  it  is  susceptible,  whether 
in  regard  to  the  temperature  communicated  tp  it,  or  the  force 
with'  which  it  impinges  on  the  system  ;  and  its  freedom  from 
any  noxious  ingredients  that  may  be  developed  by  lamps, 
candles,  fire-places,  or  by  any  other  special  cause.  Where 
sanitary  measures  have  secured  the  purity  of  the  external 
atmosphere  by  effective  drainage,  cleansing,  and  prevention  of 
nuisances,  one-half  of  the  remedy  may  be  secured,  and  with- 
out such  measures  no  system  of  ventilation  can  be  successful." 
"Were  it  generally  known,"  writes  Dr.  Reid,  "that  the 
movement  from  an  ascending  current  from  lamps  is  always 
accompanied  in  non-ventilated  apartments  by  a  proportionate 
descent  of  vitiated  air,  which  may  have  previously  supported 
combustion,  and  that  the  descent,  though  limited  at  first, 

*  Dr.  Hutchinson.     Jour,  of  Pub.  Health,  vol  i. 
f  Sanitary  Review,  rol.  iL  p.  208. 


115 

may  suddenly  reach  the  floor,  greater  anxiety  would  be  mani- 
fested to  give  vent  to  such  products  by  a  superior  aperture." 
Dr.  Guy  very  justly  remarks  that  no  system  of  ventilation 
can  come  into  general  use  which  does  not  prevent  draughts, 
which  is  not  cheap,  and  which  interferes  to  any  great  extent 
with  existing  structural  arrangements. 

The  great  number  of  plans  for  ventilation  would  imply  that 
an  easy  and  efficient  system  is  not  yet  reached.  They 
are,  however,  encouraging,  as  they  afford  evidence  of  an  in- 
creasing desire  to  become  acquainted  with  the  subject,  and  to 
give  it  a  practical  bearing.  The  extension  to  which  this 
report  has  already  unexpectedly  reached,  will  forbid  my  enter- 
ing into  deiails,  or  even  repeating  the  outlines  of  all  the  dif- 
ferent plans  which  I  gave  some  years  back  (1850),  in  a  report 
on  Public  Hygiene,  read  before  the  College  of  Physicians  of 
Philadelphia. 

Beginning  with  the  third  head  of  the  plans  of  ventilation, 
which  looks  to  the  natural  movements  of  the  air  by  a  simple 
interchange  between  that  of  the  interior  of  a  house  or  other 
building,  and  the  external  atmosphere,  Dr.  Iveid  thinks,  that 
a  well-constructed  window,  capable  of  being  opened  above 
and  below,  realizes,  when  the  fire-place  is  well  arranged,  all 
the  essential  conditions  for  effective  ventilation,  in  the  apart- 
ments or  tenements  occupied  by  the  poorer  classes*  This,  as 
he  admits,  however,  will  only  answer  when  the  weather  is  not 
severe.  It  also  assumes,  what  in  our  towns  now  is  becoming 
a  rare  thing,  viz. :  an  open  fire-place.  This  last  is  replaced  by 
a  stove,  or  more  generally  still,  by  a  register  for  the  admission 
of  warm  air  from  the  air-chamber  heated  by  the  furnace  below. 

One  of  the  simplest,  and  at  the  same  time  a  most  gentle 
and  efficient  mode  of  ventilation,  is  the  admission  of  external 
air  through  a  perforated  zinc  plate,  or  fine  wire  gauze,  which 
is  to  replace  a  pane  of  glass  in  a  window  of  the  room  toi>e 
ventilated.  The  plate  is  perforated  with  290  holes  to  the 


116 

square  inch.  It,  or  the  gauze  wire,  is  generally  introduced 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  window,  and  in  the  place  of  the  cor- 
ner pane  the  farthest  from  the  fire-place.  Instead  of  the 
contrivances  just  mentioned,  the  pane  of  glass  might  itself  be 
perforated.  The  fine  orifices  prevent  the  air  from  coming  in 
with  a  rush,  which  would  occasion  discomfort,  and  they  tend 
to  diffuse  the  air  equally  and  gently  through  the  apartment. 
No  draught  is  felt  unless  a  person  be  seated  immediately 
under  tke  window.  But  the  benefit  is  not  limited  to  the  in- 
troduction of  pure  atmospheric  air  into  the  room.  There  is, 
all  the  time,  an  interchange  between  it  and  the  internal  heated 
and  impure  air,  which  thus  finds  vent  and  is  carried  off.  The 
interchange  takes  place  on  the  same  principle  with  the  diffu- 
sion of  vapors  and  gases,  even  though  they  differ  from  each 
other  in  temperature  and  specific  gravity.  It  is  in  this  way  that 
Jeffray's  respirator  acts,  by  mitigating  the  coldness  of  the 
external  air  in  its  admixture  with  the  warm  internal  air,  just 
escaping  from  the  lungs  in  respiration.  The  plan  of  ventila- 
tion now  described  is  recommended  by  its  simplicity  and  its 
cheapness.  It  is  applicable  to  ordinary  sleeping  and  sitting- 
rooms,  in  a  private  house,  as  well  as  to  shops,  in  which,  owing 
to  the  general  absence  of  an  open  chimney,  or  any  other 
means  of  permanent  communication  with  the  external  air,  it 
is  more  urgently  required.  During  the  first  winter  in  which 
your  reporter  had  charge  of  the  men's  wards  of  the  Com- 
mercial Hospital  at  Cincinnati,  he  caused  gauze  wire  to  be 
substituted  for  a  pane  of  glass,  in  every  other  window,  and 
the  effects  were  immediate  and  perceptible,  both  in  a  diminu- 
tion, if  not  entire  exclusion,  of  the  unpleasant  odors  which 
pervaded  the  wards,  the  ceilings  of  which  were  very  low,  and 
which  were  heated  by  large  coal  stoves  in  the  centre  of  each 
ward.  On  the  following  winter,  the  gauze  wire  was  substi- 
tuted for  the  pane  of  glass  in  the  other  windows  f  f  the  large 
ward,  and  with  the  best  effects.  At  the  conclusion  of  his  first 


117 

tour  of  duty  in  the  spring,  his  colleagues  in  the  Ohio  Medical 
College  were  pleased  to  compliment  him  on  what  they  termed 
his  successful  practice  in  the  Hospital.  As  statistical  returns 
were  wanting,  one  could  not  attach  much  importance  to  this 
favorable  opinion  ;  "but  if  the  patients  could  have  spoken,  they 
would  have  expressed  themselves  in  very  decided  terms  of 
commendation  of  the  plan  Iby  which  they  could  breathe  with 
some  comfort,  especially  during  the  night,  and  obtain,  at  the 
same  time,  alleviation  from  the  excitement  and  pains  of  fever 
and  inflammation. 

Another  plan  of  ventilation  still,  based  on  the  natural 
movements  of  the  air,  without  the  aid  either  of  mechanical 
or  chemical  means,  is  by  an  opening  in  the  wall  or  ceiling 
which  leads  to  the  external  air,  and  which  is  protected  by  a 
shield  or  disk,  say  two  inches  larger  than  the  aperture.  The 
external  air,  in  impinging  against  the  side  of  this  shield,  is 
split  up  into  a  thin  circular  radiating  sheet,  and  at  a  short 
distance  below,  not  more  than  two  feet,  a  person  cannot  feel 
cold  entering,  nor  can  the  hand  detect  a  draught  at  eight  or 
ten  inches  distance  from  the  edge  of  the  disk.  The  sheet  of 
air  may  be  modified  according  to  the  distance  of  the  shield 
from  the  aperture.  A  still  farther  precaution  has  been  used 
by  Dr.  Guy,  who  adopted  this  practice  for  admitting  air, 
through  a  window-pane  of  glass.  It  is  to  have  the  sides  of  a 
close-fitting  shield  perforated,  and  thus  to  have  the  air  broken 
into  jets.  The  plan  of  ventilation  through  openings  with 
shields  or  disks  before  them,  has  been  modified  by  Mr.  Leather, 
of  Sheffield.  He  introduced  it  for  supplying  the  day  and  bed- 
rooms of  the  Eccleshall  Bierlow  Union  Poor  House  with  fresh 
air,  and,  as  lie  said,  in  his  evidence  before  the  English  Com- 
missioners for  Inquiry,  &c.,  so  often  referred  to  in  this  report, 
it  answers  the  purpose  admirably.  An  opening  is  to  be 
made  in  the  outer  wall,  and  a  flue  carried  from  it  between  the 
floor  timbers,  to  the  middle  of  the  ceiling,  where  the  air  passes 


118 

into  the  room ;  in  order  to  prevent  the  current  of  air  from 
rushing  downwards,  the  aperture  in  the  ceiling  is  masked  "by 
a  large  circular  iron  plate.     The  purpose  of  this  has  been 
already  explained.     It  is  fixed  on  a  screw  passing  through  its 
centre,  and  by  turning  th§  plate  round,  the  aperture  may  be 
closed  or  opened,  little  or  much,  and  the  supply  of  air  regulated 
at  pleasure.      Mr.   Hosking,   in  his  valuable  work  on  the 
"  Proper  Regulation  of  Buildings  in    Towns,"   suggests 
different  plans  for  ventilation.      One   of  the  simplest,  and 
which  comes  under  our  present  head,  is  by  means  of  "  oppo- 
site air-flues,   or  flues    opening  to  the   same   apartment,  in 
opposite  walls,  the  flue  on  one  side  giving  vent  to  the  spent 
air  at  the  highest  level  the  room  affords,  and  that  on  the 
other  side  delivering  fresh  air  at  the  same  high  level."     This 
plan  will  go  far  to  fulfill  the  indications  previously  stated  by 
Mr.  H.,  viz.  :  the  expulsion  of  foul  air  from  apartments  by 
processes  which  act  independently,  and  which  cannot  operate 
offensively,  as  by  cold  draughts  ;  and  such  processes  must  be 
moreover  inexpensive,   to  give   them   any  chance  of  being 
largely  adopted.     The  plan  just  offered  will  be  more  complete 
where  there  is  a  fire,  whose  place  is  arranged,  and  whose  com- 
bustion is  fed  with  air,  in  a  manner  previously  described  by 
Mr.  Hosking,  so  as  to  insure  its  own  immunity  from  ignorant 
interference,  while  it  requires  no  manipulation  that  a  child 
may  not  supply.     For  the  details  of  his  plan,  by  which  the 
fresh  air  from  without  is  introduced   behind  and  about  the 
range  or  stove,  and  made  to  do  the  double  duty  of  feeding  the 
fire  and  supplying  the  room  for  the  purposes  of  respiration,  I 
must  refer  those  curious  on  the  subject  to  the  work  itself. 
The  plan  is  very  analogous  to  the  one  recommended  long 
before  by  Franklin.     The  air-syphon  ventilator  originating 
with  Dr.  Chowne,  is  recommended  by  its  simplicity  ^and  easy 
use,  and  its  adaptation  to  the  general  ventilation  of  buildings, 
of  ships,  and  of  mines  ;  and  if  a  little  care  were  taken  in  pro- 


119 

viding  for  its  application  in  architectural  designs,  many  useful 
results,  both  in  regard  to  artistic  display  and  hygienic  com- 
forts, would  be  realized.     The  general  principle  of  the  air- 
syphon  ventilator  rests  on  the  curious  fact,  that  if  a  tube  of 
the  syphon  shape  be  placed  in  a  room  with  the  long  end 
uppermost,  a  current  of  air  will  immediately  play  through  it, 
in  the  downward  direction  of  the  short,  and  in  the  upward 
direction  of  the  long,  leg  of  the  tube.     Another  and  still  more 
simple  process  of  ventilation  is  that  recommended  by  Dr. 
Corwan.     It  consists  in  simply  bisecting  all  tubes  or  outlets 
by  which  a  current  of  air  is  desirable.     The  bisecting  consists 
in  the  introduction  of  a  second  tube  within  the  first,  so  as  to 
allow  space  between  the  two.     If  smoke  is  to  ascend,  it  will 
be  drawn  up  in  a  steady  and  rapid  stream  on  one  or  other  side 
of  the  septum,  and  a  downward  current  more  or  less  active 
will  be  established  in  the  other.      "  Smoky  chimneys,   for 
example,  with  their  legionary  train  of  evils  and  inconveniences, 
would  be  impossible,  were  their  spaces  properly  subdivided  ; 
for  no  disproportion  in  the  relative  strength  of  either  upward 
or  downward  currents  would  prevent  their  independent  estab- 
lishment.    The  short  and  ever-smoking  chimneys  of  small 
tenements  and  upper  chambers  might  thus  be  made  efficient ; 
and  in  cases  where  bisecting  the  tube  was  impracticable,  sus- 
pending a  central  tube  would  probably  succeed.     The  pipings 
of  stoves,  if  so  constructed,  would  be  far  more  certain  in  their 
action,  while  the  downward  draught  could  be  easily  converted 
into  an  efficient  bellows  for  the  fire."     Mr.  McKennell,  of 
Glasgow,  has  constructed  his  patent  ventilator  on  this  system. 
"It  consists  mainly  of  air-tubes  arranged  concentrically,  the 
inner  discharging  the  vitiated  air,  while  the  fresh  supply  flows 
down  the  outer  tube.     It  is  almost  automatic  in  its  action, 
requiring  little  or  no  attention  in  ordinary  circumstances.     It 
removes  the  air  as  it  is  vitiated,  and  supplies  its  place  with 
pure  air  in  the  exact  amount  required,  in  currents  so  gentle  as 
to  be  scarcely  perceptible." 


120 

Mr.  Roberton  describes  the  mode  of  ventilation  of  the  hos- 
pital at  Bordeaux,  which  is  on  the  same  principle  as  that  advo- 
cated by  Mr.  Hosking.  It  consists  in  having  isolated  wards, 
and  these  open  to  the  air,  from  side  to  side  and  from  end  to 
end,  by  means  of  long  windows,  so  that  a  current  of  air  is 
always  passing  through,  in  correspondence  with  the  natural 
laws  of  the  atmosphere.  In  carrying  out  this,  the  natural  plan 
of  ventilation,  the  perforated  zinc  or  glass  plates  are  most 
useful. 

Under  the  head  of  mechanical  or  physical  means  of  ventila- 
tion, come  wind-sails,  chiefly  used  on  board  ship,  the  bellows 
or  pump,  the  fan  and  the  screw.  The  fanner  and  screw  may 
be  looked  upon  as  modifications  of  the  same  instrument.  All 
these  mechanical  plans  are  described  by  Dr.  Hutchinson,  in 
the  Journal  of  Public  Health,  vol.  ii.  In  this  connection, 
reference  may  be  made  to  Dr.  Arnott's  single  ventilating 
pump,  his  gasometer  ventilating  machine — in  fact,  an  air- 
pump — also  his  double-current  warming  ventilation.  In  the 
Niger  expedition,  the  steamers  were  ventilated  after  a  plan 
proposed  by  Dr.  Reid,  which  rested  in  the  plenum  and  vacuum 
principles.  A  fanner  or  ventilating  machine  was  put  in  mo- 
tion either  by  the  machinery  of  the  steam-engine,  or  by  the 
"  kroomen,"  or  when  in  the  rivers,  the  paddles  being  discon- 
nected from  the  engine,  by  the  paddles  themselves,  which 
acted  as  water-wheels.  From  the  ventilator  a  series  of  tubes 
extended  to  all  the  compartments  of  the  vessel.  When  the 
fanner  worked  on  the  "  vacuum  principle"  the  vitiated  air 
was  drawn  by  it  from  the  various  compartments,  and  was  dis- 
charged at  an  opening  in  the  circumference  of  the  fan-box. 
When  the  " plenum  principle"  was  resorted  to,  the  fresh  ex- 
ternal air  was  connected  with  the  centre,  and  blown  into  the 
distribution  tubes  to  the  several  compartments.  By  these 
means  it  was  hoped  that,  under  any  circumstances,  fresh  air 
might  be  infused  into,  or  vitiated  air  extracted  from,  the  hold, 


121 

or  any  part  of  the  vessel.    At  some  periods  of  the  voyage,  the 
air  was  drawn  through  a  medicator,  with  the  intention  of 

removing  carbonic  acid,  and  of  evolving  chlorine. 

• 

Chemical  Ventilation. — For  nearly  all  useful  purposes, 
and  as  an  agejit,  in  some  sort,  always  present,  and  readily 
brought  into  play,  heat  is  the  most  efficient  agent,  and  it  is 
that  which  gives  rise  to  chemical  ventilation.  In  fatt,  the 
questions  of  warming  and  ventilating  apartments  are  closely 
related  and  interwoven  one  with  another.  There  can  be  no 
ventilation  where  there  is  no  movement  of  air,  and  this  move- 
ment, apart  from  some  mechanical  contrivances  of  very  limited 
use  and  power,  is  always  imparted  by  heat ;  one  portion  of  air 
rarefied  by  heat,  rising  and  being  replaced  by  a  cooler  one, 
and  so  on.  As  long  as  we  have  a  fire  we  have  a  ventilator ; 
and  when  the  difference  between  the  temperature  of  a  room  or 
hall  of  any  description,  and  that  of  the  outer  air,  is  not  enough 
to  cause  an  active  movement  of  the  air,  or  where  this  is  mixed 
with  much  watery  vapor  or  gases,  it  is  necessary  to  procure 
the  aid  of  artificial  heat,  or  a  fire,  in  order  to  give  the  requisite 
movement  to  the  air,  and  thus  insure  ventilation.  With  this 
view  a  fire  is  made  in  the  upper  part  of  the  tower  of  a  building 
to  be  ventilated,  and  flues  are  constructed  to  establish  a  com- 
munication between  the  room  or  hall  in  which  persons  are 
assembled,  and  the  chimney  of  the  fire-place,  or  a  common 
central  flue  contiguous  to  and  heated  by  this  fire.  A  few 
large  gas-burners  will  answer  the  purpose  of  this  last,  and 
with  less  trouble  to  the  attendants,  and  less  risk  to  the  build- 
ing. The  impure  air  is  by  this  means  drawn,  as  it  were,  from 
the  various  rooms  below,  through  the  prepared  apertures  at  the 
upper  part,  or  near  the  ceiling,  and  passes  along  the  flues 
which  converge  at  the  central  flue,  whence  it  finds  its  way 
into  the  open  air,  at  such  a  height,  and  with  such  a  rapidity 
of  movement,  as  to  insure  its  diffusion  through  the  atmo- 


122 

sphere,  without  its  exerting  any  injurious  effects  on  the  people 
out  of  doors,  or,  in  fact,  without  the  possibility  of  its  reaching 
them.  By  methods  of  this  kind,  we  could  ventilate  all  places 
in  which  people  congregate  for  any  length  of  time,  as  churches, 
schools,  and  lecture-rooms,  courts  of  justice,  concert,  and  danc- 
ing-rooms, and  theatres,  or  in  which  a  number  of  persons  are 
confined  from  infirmity  or  sickness,  as  in  hospitals  and  other 
asylums,  or  for  crimes,  as  in  prisons.  The  ingress  air,  or  that 
from  without,  is  to  be  introduced  in  quantity  bearing  a  rela- 
tion to  the  number  of  persons  assembled,  and  to  the  quantity 
of  egress  air  through  the  discharging  flues.  When,  however, 
it  is  necessary  to  procure  artificial  warmth  for  the  comfort  of 
the  parties  assembled,  in  any  of  the  ways  just  mentioned, 
then  the  heating  apparatus  will  rarefy  the  air  sufficiently  to 
insure,  after  it  has  been  used  in  respiration,  its  rising  and 
being  earned  off  by  exit  flues  opening  into  the  external  atmo- 
sphere. These  flues  for  egress  air  should  be  somewhat  of  a 
valvular  form,  because  air,  except  under  a  powerful  and  quick 
motion,  will,  from  any  cause,  regurgitate  into  the  apartment 
or  hall.  By  the  internal  valve  for  egress  air,  we  must  be 
understood  to  mean  some  valvular  machine  opening  into  a 
heated  chimney-flue,  which  may  pass  up  the  side  of  the 
chamber.  The  internal  valve  is,  therefore,  chiefly  applicable 
to  private  rooms  or  buildings  constructed  on  a  similar  system. 
More  than  sixty  years  ago,  Franklin  spoke  of  the  advantage- 
ous system  of  making  a  communication  into  a  smoke-flue 
near  the  ceiling  of  the  wards  of  the  Pennsylvania  Hospital, 
and  that  such  an  opening,  together  with  another  in  each  door 
of  the  ward,  made  them  all  "perfectly  sweet." 

The  ventilating  valve  of  Dr.  Arnott  has  got  into  extensive 
use,  and  when  correctly  fitted  up,  works  well.  It  is  placed 
in  an  opening  made  for  the  purpose  from  the  room  into  the 
chimney-flue,  near  the  ceiling,  by  which  all  the  noxious  air, 
caused  by  the  breathing  of  persons  in  the  room,  the  combus- 


123 

tion  of  gas  or  other  bodies  for  lighting,  &c.,  is  allowed  at 
once,  in  obedience  to  the  chimney  draught,  to  pass  away ; 
but  through  which  no  air  or  smoke  can  return.  The  valve  is 
a  metallic  flap  to  close  the  opening,  balanced  by  a  weight  on  an 
arm  behind  the  hinge.  The  weight  may  be  screwed  on  its 
arm  to  such  a  distance  from  the  axis,  or  centre  of  motion, 
that  it  shall  exactly  counterpoise  the  flap  ;  but  if  a  little  far- 
ther off,  if  will  just  preponderate,  and  keep  the  flap,  when  not 
acted  on  by  entering  air,  very  softly  in  the  closed  position. 
Although  the  valve,  therefore,  be  heavy  and  durable,  a  breath 
of  air  suffices  to  remove  it ;  which,  if  from  the  room,  opens 
it,  and  if  from  the  chimney  closes  it,  and  when  no  such  force 
interferes,  it  shuts.  The  valve  is  so  regulated  originally,  as 
to  settle  always  in  the  closed  position.  An  important  part  of 
the  arrangement  is  the  wire,  which  descends  like  a  bell-wire, 
from  a  valve  to  a  screw  or  peg  fixed  in  the  wall  within  the  reach 
of  a  person's  hand,  by  acting  on  which  the  valve  may  be 
either  entirely  closed,  or  left  free  to  open  in  any  desired  degree. 
•In  cold  weather,  or  with  few  persons  in  the  room,  the  valve, 
when  only  opened  a  little,  allows  as  much  air  to  pass  as  is 
requisite.  A  flap  of  thirty-six  square  inches  area  is  large 
enough  where  there  is  a  good  chimney  draught,  for  a  full- 
sized  sitting-room  with  company.  It  is  essential  for  the  suc- 
cessful working  of  this  ventilating  valve,  that  the  chimney 
draught  be  uniform  and  good,  so  that  no  more  air  shall  enter 
at  the  chimney-flue  over  the  fire,  than  can  escape  at  the  chim- 
ney-pot above.  Where  the  room  is  warmed  by  a  stove  or  by 
furnace,  there  is  less  probability  of  any  obstacle  of  this  kind 
to  the  chimney  taking  in  air  at  the  ventilating  valve. 

Mr.  Ewart  has  constructed  a  more  simple,  and  it  is  alleged, 
effective  valve,  than  Dr.  Arnott,  for  the  small  cost  of  a  sum 
not  exceeding  a  dollar.  The  valve  is  composed  of  oiled  silk, 
on  a  frame,  on  which  are  six  large  openings,  admitting  the 
egress  of  air  with  great  freedom.  Very  similar  to  this  con- 


124 

trivance,  is  one  also  suggested  by  Dr.  Arnott.  It  consists  of 
a  square  iron  tube  of  from  three  to  six  inches  in  diameter, 
and  so  long  that  the  outer  orifice  shall  be  flush  with  the  wall 
of  the  apartment,  and  the  inner  one  enter  the  chimney.  These 
tubes  are  usually  from  four  to  six  inches  in  length.  At  the 
orifice  entering  the  room,  there  is  either  a  plate  of  perforated  zinc 
or  a  piece  of  fine  wire-work,  from  the  upper  and  back  part  of 
which  hangs  a  piece  of  ordinary  or  oiled  silk,  which  acts  as  a 
valve,  so  as  to  allow  the  warm  and  vitiated  air  to  pass  up  the 
chimney,  and  to  prevent  any  smoke  from  entering  the  room. 
The  annoyance  of  a  smoky  chimney  is  removed  by  this 
mechanism.  When  it  is  found  necessary  to  close  up  the  valve, 
either  upon  lighting  the  fire,  or  in  cold  weather,  or  when  a 
room  is  first  inhabited,  or  finally,  if  the  chimney  should  be  on 
fire,  a  slide  connected  with  the  tube  can  be  drawn  up  and 
cover  the  whole  aperture. 

In  constructing  a  house,  Dr.  Ilutchinson  recommends  the 
introduction  of  a  sufficient  flue  for  air.  All  chambers  should 
receive  the  air  below  the  level  of  the  head  of  the  inhabitant1, 
and  this  air  should  be  carried  away  at  the  highest  point  of 
the  chamber,  in  the  ceiling  or  immediately  below  it.  This 
direction  is  not  applicable  to  the  flues  through  which  heated 
ingress  air  from  furnaces,  or  analogous  heating  apparatus  by 
steam  or  hot  water  below,  finds  its  entrance  into  a  room.  Its 
diffusion  takes  place  without  difficulty.  Supposing,  as  is  the 
case  in  summer,  that  no  movement  is  communicated  to  the 
air  by  internal  heat,  and  no  external  supply  is  obtained  by 
heated  air  which  had  just  come  from  the  external  atmosphere, 
then  must  the  ingress  air  be  low  down  ;  and  while  entering  it 
should  be  dispersed  or  broken  up  into  small  streams  or  thin 
sheets,  as  previously  recommended,  so  that  no  draught  can  be 
felt  by  the  inmate  of  the  chamber.  It  is  necessary  that  the 
air  should  be  admitted  imperceptibly,  and  thus  receive  the 
natural  radiant  heat  of  the  chamber  as  quickly  as  possible. 


125 

Perforated  floors  were  adopted  by  Dr.  Eeid,  in  the  House  of 
Commons ;  this  again  being  covered  by  hair  cloth,  so  that 
the  supply  of  air  be  broken  up  into  small  currents.  The  ob- 
jections to  this  arrangement  were  found  to  be,  that  the  air  not 
only  brought  with  it  all  the  dust  and  dirt  and  taint  from  the 
feet,  but  it  was  likewise  directed  upon  this  part  of  the  body, 
thus  increasing  the  discomfort  of  "  cold  feet,"  from  which 
many  persons  suffer.  In  large  buildings,  as  churches,  where 
there  is  generally  underground  convenience  for  directing  the 
air  through  some  favorable  quarter  below  the  floor,  into  the 
body  of  the  building,  and  that  in  particular  spots,  not  near  the 
feet,  as  in  the  aisle,  this  system  of  perforated  floors  may  be 
found  to  answer.  In  private  rooms,  there  remains  only  the 
side-wall  for  ingress  air,  and  the  place  recommended  in  prefer- 
ence, is  the  top  of  the  skirting  board  which  surrounds  the 
room.  But  even  here  some  of  the  objections  occur  which  in- 
tervene with  the  plan  of  perforated  floors,  viz.,  the  escape  of 
dust  which  would  adhere  to  the  borders  of  the  slit,  if  not  par- 
tially obstruct  it,  and  be  impelled  at  other  times  into  the 
room  by  the  draught  of  the  ingress  air.  This  latter  may  be 
broken  into  a  sheet-like  form  by  other  means,  which  have 
been  already  mentioned.  Corresponding  with  the  passage 
round  the  lower  part  of  the  room  for  ingress  air,  and  free  from 
the  objections  brought  against  this,  is  another  passage  for  the 
egress  air  made  by  openings  just  below  the  cornice,  which 
communicate  with  the  external  air,  and  are  wide  enough  to 
answer  the  desired  purpose  without  interfering  with  the  orna- 
mental character  of  the  cornice,  or  the  general  style  of  the 
finest  apartment. 

Among  the  latest  and  most  valuable  for  efficiency  and  gene- 
ral applicability,  is  the  plan  of  ventilation  of  dwellings  and 
other  edifices,  suggested  and  put  in  execution  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Gris- 
com,  of  New  York.  It  pertains  to  the  "  chemical  method," 
the  motive  power  of  the  air  being  heat,  but  requiring  no  ex- 


126 

tra  expenditure  of  fuel,  the  heat  used  for  the  purpose  being 
only  the  waste  heat  of  the  furnace  by  which  the  house  is 
warmed.  The  arrangement  consists  in  the  construction  of 
independent  ventilating  flues  in  the  walls  of  the  house,  in 
proximity  to  the  hot-air  tubes,  so  that  the  two  may  be  con- 
nected together  by  means  of  a  lateral  or  branch  tube,  by 
which  a  current  of  hot  air  may,  at  any  desired  moment,  be 
transmitted  from  the  hot-air  tube  to  the  ventilating  flue.  By 
this  means  the  ventilating  flues,  which  terminate  in  the  open 
air  like  an  ordinary  chimney,  will  be  warmed  by  the  hot  air 
from  the  furnace,  when  the  ordinary  hot-air  register  is  closed, 
as  at  night  in  a  dwelling,  or  in  a  school-house  after  school 
hours. 

If  properly  constructed,  of  brick,  or  smooth  stone,  the  walls 
of  a  flue  will,  after  a  current  of  hot  air  has  passed  through  it 
a  short  time,  become  sufficiently  heated  to  rarefy  the  air  with- 
in, thus  giving  the  flue  a  good  ventilating  power,  even  after 
the  current  of  hot  air  has  been  withdrawn.  For  example,  if 
the  hot-air  register  of  a  parlor  be  closed  at  ten  o'clock  at  night, 
and  the  heat,  instead  of-  being  thrown  back  into  the  furnace, 
is  allowed  to  pass  through  the  lateral  tube  into  the  ventilating 
flue,  and  so  continue  till  six  the  next  morning,  it  is  evident 
that,  during  those  eight  hours,  the  interior  of  the  ventilating 
flue  must  become  thoroughly  heated,  so  that  the  next  day, 
when  the  current  of  hot  air  is  restored  to  the  parlor,  the  heated 
sides  of  the  ventilating  flue  will  continue  to  rarefy  the  air 
within  them  for  many  hours,  and  perhaps  even  days,  after- 
wards. 

There  being  no  danger  of  a  reaction  of  the  air  of  the  flue 
through  the  ventilating  register  (as  is  the  case  when  ventilating 
openings  are  made  in  ordinary  fire-flues),  connections  with 
the  apartment  to  be  ventilated  may  be  made  at  any  point,  and 
even  carried  to  the  opposite  side  .of  the  house,  between  the 
beams  of  the  ceiling,  to  ventilate  distant  apartments.  Dr. 


127 

Griscom's  method  has  the  advantage  of  being  applicable  to 
all  edifices  warmed  by  hot-air  furnaces  of  any  description, 
which,  in  general,  are  those  most  needing  ventilation.  This 
arrangement  may  be  introduced  into  many  houses  already 
erected,  by  connecting  the  hot-air  tubes  wtih  such  of  the 
ordinary  chimney-flues  as  are  not  used  with  fire. 

One  of  the  principal  advantages  appertaining  to  this  plan, 
is  the  capability  of  having  a  large  number  of  ventilating  flues 
put  in  connection  with  the  furnace.  In  fact,  the  number  may 
correspond  with  the  number  of  hot-air  registers,  and  thus  any 
desirable  amount  and  extent  of  ventilation  be  obtained. 

Ventilation  of  /Schools. — Happily  we  can  now  speak  of  a 
marked  reform  in  this  matter,  which  began  in  Boston,  and  prom- 
ises to  spread  to  other  and  remote  places.  A  committee,  consist- 
ing of  Dr.  Henry  G.  Clark,  E.  G.  Loring,  Esq.,  and  the  Rev. 
Charles  Brooks,  under  an  appointment  of  the  School  Committee 
of  Boston,  to  inquire  into  the  subject  of  the  ventilation  of  school- 
houses,  and  to  indicate  the  means  of  remedying  defects,  re- 
ported, after  the  successful  performance  of  their  task,  that  the 
grammar  school-houses  were  then  in  a  better  condition,  in  re- 
spect to  their  ventilation,  than  any  other  public  schools  in  the 
world.  The  first-named  gentleman  of  the  Committee,  who  is 
our  colleague  on  the  present  occasion,  was  mainly  instrumental 
by  his  ingenuity  and  perseverance,  in  bringing  about  these 
improvements.  In  Philadelphia  and  other  cities,  many  of  the 
public  schools  received  the  benefit  of  the  visits  and  reforma- 
tory suggestions  of  the  Boston  Committee.  Statues  have 
been  reared,  and  other  honors  conferred,  for  much  less  services 
than  were  rendered  by  these  gentlemen.  They  ought  to  have 
received  at  least  an  ovation  from  the  grateful  children  and 
teachers  in  the  public  schools.  Commendatory  reference  may 
be  made  at  this  time  to  the  very  useful  volume  of  Mr.  Henry 
Barnard  on  School  Architecture  in  the  United  States.  From 


128 

page  142  to  page  165,  2d  edition,  the  reader  will  find  instruct- 
ive details  on  the  subject  of  warming  and  -ventilating  schools 
and  other  public  buildings.  Among  the  apparatus  for  the 
purpose,  Chilson's  furnace  and  ventilating  stove,  and  also 
Emerson's  ejecting  and  injecting  ventilators,  are  noticed  in 
terms  of  commendation,  such  as  had  been  previously  bestowed 
on  them  by  the  Committee.  Mr.  Emerson  very  properly  in- 
sists on  the  admission  of  warm  air  into  a  school-room,  as  in- 
dispensable to  its  proper  ventilation ;  and  he  enforces  his 
views  on  this  point,  by  refusing  to  allow  his  ventilators  to  be 
put  up  in  any  school-house  that  is  not,  by  some  means,  sup- 
plied with  fresh  wanned  air.  He  objects,  like  most  people 
who  have  attended  to  the  subject,  to  the  use  of  all  such  stoves 
and  furnaces  as  emit  their  heat  through  and  from  red-hot  iron ; 
and  he  recommends  what  large  experience  sanctions,  that 
when  anthracite  coal  is  used,  the  stove  or  furnace  in  which  it 
is  burned  be  lined  with  brick  or  stone. 

The  great  and  crying  neglect  of  external  ventilation  in 
nearly  all  the  schools,  both  public  and  private,  in  cities,  tells 
heavily  on  the  health  of  their  inmates.  No  adequate,  and  in 
most  cases,  no  space  at  all  is  allowed  for  the  children  to  ob- 
tain fresh  air,  and  to  engage  in  healthful  exercise  and  sports 
during  the  hours  of  recess  from  study.  Not  only  are  out-door 
exercises  imperatively  demanded  for  the  purposes  of  full  re- 
spiratory effect  by  expansion  of  the  chest,  but  also  of  allowing 
the  body  to  receive  its  erect  posture,  and  the  limbs  their  free 
play,  all  of  which  is  prevented  when  the  children  are  seated, 
and  leaning  over  a  table  or  desk. 

Ventilation  of  Hospitals. — It  has  been  well  remarked 
by  the  French  authors  (MM.  Montfalcon  and  Poliniere)  of 
a  work  already  cited — a  Treatise  on  the  Health  of  Great 
Cities — that  the  more  numerous  and  diversified  are  the 
causes  of  vitiated  air  in  a  hospital,  the  greater  is  the  neces- 


129 

sity  for  vigilance  in  obviating  its  occurrence.  Every  patient 
ought,  these  gentlemen  think,  to  have  at  least  three  hundred 
cubic  inches  of  pure  air  per  hour  at  his  disposal ;  and  every 
ward  of  a  hospital  so  well  ventilated,  that  the  most  delicate 
sense  of  smell  could  not  detect  any  unpleasant  odor  j  and 
finally,  the  temperature  should  be  always  kept  at  60°  F. 
Ameliorating  influences,  to  the  extent,  in  some  instances,  of 
entire  reform  of  old  abuses,  are  now  at  work  in  the  ventilation 
of  hospitals  and  benevolent  and  charitable  asylums  of  all  kinds. 
This  is  more  particularly  observable  in  the  asylums  for  the  in- 
sane, some  valuable  suggestions  and  improvements  in  the  in- 
terior economy  of  which  have  been  made  of  late  years  by 
their  medical  superintendents.  At  their  meeting  in  Utica,  in 
1849,  they  declared  it  to  be  their  unanimous  opinion,  ''that 
the  experiments  recently  made  in  various  institutions  in  this 
country  and  elsewhere,  prove  that  the  best  means  of  supply- 
ing warmth  in  winter,  at  present  known  to  them,  consist  in 
passing  fresh  air  from  the  external  atmosphere  over  pipes  or 
plates,  containing  steam  at  a  low  pressure,  or  water,  the  tem- 
perature of  which  in  the  boiler  does  not  exceed  212°  F.,  and 
placed  in  large  air-chambers  in  the  basement  or  cellar  of  the 
building  to  be  heated."  These  gentlemen  also  declared  "  that 
a  complete  system  of  fixed  ventilation  was  absolutely  indis- 
pensable in  every  institution,  like  hospitals,  for  the  ordinary 
sick  or  insane,  and  where  all  possible  benefits  are  sought  to 
be  derived  from  these  arrangements  ;  and,  "  that  no  expense 
that  is  required  to  effect  these  objects  thoroughly,  can  be 
deemed  either  misplaced  or  injudicious." 

The  union  of  mechanical  with  chemical  means  of  ventila- 
tion of  hospitals  has  been  recommended.  A  small  power 
would  be  sufficient  to  abstract  the  air  rendered  heavy  by  the 
carbonic  acid,  which  is  accidentally  diffused  in  consequence 
of  being  condensed  before  it  arrives  at  the  ventilating  tubes. 
This  might  be  done  by  means  of  a  ventilator  on  the  bellows 
9 


130 

plan,  similar  to  that  adopted  by  Hales,  or  the  still  more  sim 
pie  one,  the  exhausting  air-pump  of  John  Taylor,  for  the 
ventilation  of  coal  mines,  which  is  worked  by  a  regulated 
power  on  the  principle  of  clock-work,  and  with  the  addition  of 
an  apparatus  for  opening  the  valves.  "  The  expense  of  labor 
to  raise  a  weight  every  day  to  keep  it  in  constant  action, 
would  be,"  Tredgold  thinks,  "much  less  than  the  expense  of 
fuel  and  attention  to  produce  the  same  effect  by  fire,  the  action 
being  more  certain.  To  produce  the  effect  we  desire,  the  best 
plan  seems  to  be  to  have  open  gratings  in  various  parts  of  the 
passages,  with  tubes  from  each  to  the  place  of  the  ventilator ; 
and  the  gratings  might  be  provided  with  slides,  so  that  the 
action  might  be  confined  more  to  particular  parts,  as  occasion 
might  require."  Another  important  part  of  the  ventilation  of 
hospitals  is  that  of  the  water-closets.  An  effectual  plan  for 
attaining  this  end  is  to  connect  a  flue  at  one  end  with  the  de- 
scending pipe  of  the  basin,  or  with  the  well  below,  and  at 
another  end  with  the  chimney  of  a  fire  that  is  constantly  kept 
up.  Even  where  the  water-closet  pipe  empties  into  a  cess-pool 
privy  below,  this  arrangement  is,  as  we  know  from  actual  ex- 
perience during  a  period  of  seventeen  years,  quite  successful ; 
even  in  a  case  in  which,  although  water  is  introduced  by  a 
pipe  and  stop-cock  into  the  basin  of  the  water-closet,  yet  there 
is  no  addition  of  a  trap  or  syphon.  It  is  necessary  for  the 
proper  effect  of  this  plan,  that  the  lids  of  the  privy  below  be 
kept  down,  otherwise  there  will  be  an  upward  and  offensive 
current  of  air  from  the  cess-pool,  interfering  with  the  draft  from 
this  into  the  chimney,  as  just  described 

At  this  present  time  two  novel  systems  of  warming  and  ven- 
tilation seem  to  divide  scientific  opinion  and  support  in  Paris. 
The  one  is  by  M.  Duvoir,  the  advantages  of  which  are  said 
to  be:  1st.  That  it  insures  free  ventilation;  2d.  That  it  warms 
and  ventilates  at  the  same  time  ;  3d.  That  it  is  cleanly  and 
inexpensive ;  4th.  That  in  hospital  wards,  where  the  emana- 


131 

tions  from  the  sick  are  offensive  and  pernicious,  such  ema- 
nations can  be  borne  away,  directly  from  above  downwards, 
by  having  the  upper  opening  in  the  ventilating  shafts  in 
each  ward  closed,  and  the  lower  one  open.  The  wards  are 
thus  constantly  swept  clean  of  all  hurtful  gaseous  products. 
Among  other  public  buildings  is  the  "  Hospital  de  Lariboi- 
siere"  to  which  the  system  of  M.  Duvoir  has  been  applied. 
Strong  testimony  is  borne  by  distinguished  judges  of  the  value 
of  its  action  and  of  its  successful  application.*  The  second 
apparatus  for  warming  and  ventilation,  is  that  contrived 
by  Van  Hecke.  The  apparatus  lor  heating  the  men's 
wards  at  the  Neckar  Hospital,  consists  of  three  furnaces  in  a 
cellar,  which  heat  air  that  is  distributed  by  flues  to  the  hos- 
pital. The  quantity  of  air  heated  is  considerable,  and  hence 
it  need  not  be  raised  to  a  high  temperature  :  this,  when  enter- 
ing the  wards,  is  not  more  than  86°  to  95°  Fah.  It  acquires 
the  proper  humidity  by  passing  over  contiguous  reservoirs  of 
water.  The  ventilation  is  procured  by  the  agency  of  a  small 
steam-engine  placed  in  the  cellar,  but  its  boiler  in  a  suitable 
place  outside  the  building,  which  sets  in  motion  a  ventilator, 
that  derives  its  pure  air  from  the  garden,  and  injects  it  into  a 
strong  suction-pipe  placed  under  ground,  and  running  the 
length  of  the  entire  building.  This  chief  pipe  is  divided  into 
secondary  ones,  which  convey  the  air  to  the  furnaces,  and 
thence  into  the  wards  situated  on  different  stories.  The  air 
enters  into  the  wards  in  large  sections,  and  without  producing 
sensible  currents.  The  impure  and  vitiated  air  escapes  by 
flues,  wliich  convey  it  out  above  the  roof.  This  system  may 
be  denned  to  be,  warming  the  hospital  wards  by  means  of 
three  furnaces ;  mechanical  ventilation  by  propulsion  ;  com- 
plete appropria'  ion  of  the  steam  vapor,  which,  after  doing  its 
first  duty  in  the  engine,  is  employed  to  meet  the  necessary 
wants  of  the  patients,  such  as  baths  and  washing.  The  ven- 

*  Sanitary  Review,  vol.  L  pp.  423-4. 


132 


apparatus  propels  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  and  twen- 
ty cubic  inches  of  pure  air  hourly  for  each  bed.  Kegisters 
allow  of  the  diminution  of  the  amount  of  warm  air  brought 
by  the  different  flues. 

Factory  Ventilation.  —  Were  we  to  speak  of  the  bodily  ills 
from  factory  labor,  as  arising  in  part  from  defective  ventila- 
tion, we  should  be  met  by  the  counter  opinions  of  Drs.  Ure, 
Thackrah,  and  W.  Cooke  Taylor,  in  England,  and  MM.  Vil- 
lenne,  and  Benoisten-Chateauneuf,  in  France.  Dr.  Ure  con- 
tends that,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  machinery  used  in 
cotton  mills,,  it  is  impossible  to  crowd  the  operatives,  and 
especially  those,  nine-tenths  of  them  children,  who  tend 
the  open-spurred  mules.  As  respects  the  growth  and  de- 
velopment of  persons  engaged  in  factory  employments,  Sir 
David  Barry,  in  his  Factory  Commission  Report,  relates,  as  the 
results  of  personal  observation,  that  many  of  the  girls  were 
beautifully  formed,  who  had  been  from  ten  years  to  maturity 
in  the  mills.  On  the  subject  of  ventilation,  M.  Villerme' 
states  distinctly,  after  a  careful  calculation  of  data,  that  the 
great  body  of  those  employed  in  the  cotton  mills  have  a  better 
supply  of  air  at  their  work  than  at  their  homes,  and  better, 
also,  than  great  numbers  of  other  classes  of  work-people.  Dr. 
W.  Cooke  Taylor  says  :  "I  would  be  very  well  contented  to 
have  as  large  a  proportion  of  room  and  air  in  my  own  study, 
as  a  cotton  spinner  in  any  of  the  mills  in  Lancashire  !  "  We 
must  look  then,  it  would  seem,  for  the  causes  of  the  greater 
proportionate  mortality  among  the  manufacturing  than  among 
the  agricultural  population,  to  the  confined  lodgings  and 
crowding  in  the  parts  of  the  town  in  which  the  former  sleep 
and  spend  the  time  not  given  to  work,  and  to  the  want  of 
abundant  nutriment,  and  also  in  a  large  number,  to  habits  of 
intemperance.  There  are,  however,  some  facts  recorded 
which  might  serve  to  qualify  the  favorable  opinions  of  factory 
life.  Thus,  for  instance,  fewer  recruits  of  the  proper  strength 


133 

and  stature  for  military  service  are  obtainable  now  than  here- 
tofore from  Manchester.  Again:  a  corps  levied  from  the 
agricultural  districts  in  Wales,  or  the  northern  counties  of 
England,  will  last  longer  than  one  recruited  from  the  manu- 
facturing towns,  as  from  Birmingham  and  Manchester,  or  near 
the  metropolis. 

All  classes  might  turn  to  useful  account,  for  the  purposes 
of  ventilating  both  the  rooms  in  their  own  houses  and  the 
larger  ones  in  public  buildings,  the  presence  of  artificial  lights, 
especially  those  furnished  by  gas.  A  truncated  cone  of  zinc, 
the  upper  part  of  which  is  narrower  than  that  of  an  ordinary 
gas-shade,  and  resting,  like  the  latter,  over  the  burner,  will  be 
perforated  near  its  upper  border  by  one  end  of  a  tube  of  zinc, 
which  will  at  the  other  end  be  carried  through  the  outer  wall, 
or  else  into  a  chimney,  and  thus  be  a  conductor  for  the  air  of 
the  room  rendered  impure  by  the  combustion  of  the  gas  and 
the  breathing  of  persons  in  the  room.  This  mode  of  ventila- 
tion is  particularly  called  for  in  small  rooms  or  shops  in  which 
the  air  soon  becomes  contaminated,  and  exerts  a  noxious 
effect  on  those  employed  in  them.  There  is  one  instance  of 
an  exit  tube  for  gas,  so  elegant  that  it  would  grace  any 
drawing-room,  applicable  for  the  lights  over  the  mantel-piece 
at  each  side  of  the  looking-glass,  introduced  by  Prof.  Faraday. 

Dr.  Hutchinson  makes  an  observation  which  will  be  con- 
soling to  those  of  us  who  encroach  on  the  midnight  hour 
while  engaged  in  the  labors  of  the  desk.  "  It  is  an  error," 
he  tells  us,  "  to  suppose  that  gas  is  more  injurious  to  the  con- 
stitution than  candles ;  scientifically  the  common  means  of 
lighting,  whether  by  candles,  oil,  or  camphene,  are  all  gas- 
lights. The  work  of  a  gas  company  is  to  take  from  the  coal 
a  certain  product,  and  send  it  to  our  houses  for  combustion ; 
when  we  burn  the  candle,  &c.,  &c.,  we  do  in  the  sitting-room 
the  work  of  the  gas  company,  taking  from  the  material  the 
same  product  which  the  gas  company  sends  to  us  in  pipes  ; 


,134 

therefore,  if  there  is  any  difference,   it  is  in  favor  of  gas- 
lights." 

Ventilation  of  Sewers. — This  is  done,  first,  by  air-shafts, 
and  gratings  over  them,  at  certain  distances  from  each  other, 
which  permit  the  escape  of  the  emanations  from  the  sewer 
below  into  the  atmosphere ;  2d,  by  establishing  a  communi- 
cation between  the  sewers  and  the  rain-water  spouts  of  the 
houses  ;  but  it  is  necessary  to  trap  these  latter,  for,  otherwise, 
they  might  allow  of  the  escape  of  the  foul  air  into  the  windows 
of  sleeping-rooms.  A  common  method  in  Paris  is  to  allow  of 
the  escape  of  the  foul  air  of  the  sewer  through  lofty  shafts  or 
chimneys,  so  that  it  shall  be  disseminated  at  a  height  which 
would  prevent  its  annoying  the  people  in  the  streets,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  houses  of  ordinary  elevation.  These  shafts  are 
placed,  as  much  as  possible,  in  the  least  frequented  parts  of 
the  city;  but  even  then  the  air  escaping  from  them  is  a 
source  of  more  or  less  annoyance.  Sometimes  fires  are  made 
in  these  chimneys,  and  thus  a  strong  upward  draft  is  pro- 
cured, and  a  large  amount  of  gases  extracted.  A  simpler  and 
more  economical  plan,  is  to  connect  the  sewers  with  the  fur- 
naces or  chimneys  in  large  manufactories.  The  only  drawback 
to  a  measure  of  this  kind  is  the  occasional  risk  of  sewer  gases 
exploding  when  subjected  to  flame. 

As  ventilation  is  a  means  of  purification  of  sewers,  a  remark 
may  be  here  made  opportunely,  that  water  is  the  best  purifier, 
by  its  diluting  the  sewage  and  accelerating  its  onward  pro- 
gress; and  hence  the  freer  and  bolder  the  flushing,  and  the 
more  frequently  water  is  introduced  into  the  sewer,  the  less 
occasion  will  there  be  for  ventilation.  In  Paris  the  gutters  and 
sewers  are  flushed  daily  with  water  from  the  hydrants,  2-J- 
hours  in  the  morning,  and  the  same  length  of  time  in  the  after- 
noon. With  an  adequate  supply  of  water,  and  the  impetus 
derived  from  the  height  of  the  reservoirs  of  supply,  there  is  no 


135 

necessity  for  this  system  of  flushing,  if  the  water  which  passes 
through  each  house  as  waste  be  turned  into  drains,  both  pri- 
vate and  public.  Mr.  G.  Gurney  reported,  four  years  ago,  to 
the  Office  of  Works  in  London,  a  successful  experiment  which 
he  had  made  for  removing  or  destroying  the  effluvia  of  sewers. 
He  accomplished  this  object  by  means  of  the  steam  jet,  which 
produces  a  current  through  the  sewer  and  conveyed  with  it  the 
noxious  exhalations  which  are  then  decomposed  and  rendered 
harmless  by  their  being  made  to  pass  through  a  coke  fire  as 
they  are  drawn  off.  The  objection  to  the  frequent  use  of  the 
steam  jet  in  the  same  sewer  would  be  the  disintegration  of  the 
mortar,  and  action  on  the  surface  of  the  bricks  on  the  inside  of 
the  culvert. 

SUPPLY  OF  WATER. — One  can  hardly  overrate  the  import- 
ance of  a  full  supply  of  pure  water  to  meet  the  requirements 
of  health,  whether  we  look  to  the  individual  or  to  the  congre- 
gated numbers  in  cities  and  populous  districts.  Water,  in  an 
average  state  of  purity,  is  indispensable  for  digestion  and  the 
elaboration  of  good  blood,  as,  on  the  contrary,  if  it  be  hard, 
and  contaminated  with  vegetable  or  animal  matters,  it  perpet- 
ually disorders  digestion,  and  gives  rise  to  the  innumerable 
secondary  affections  of  the  kidneys,  skin,  and  nervous  system, 
and  an  impairment  of  bodily  strength  and  activity.  Next  to 
its  importance  as  a  drink  is  its  use  for  culinary  purposes;  and, 
after  this,  bathing  and  preserving  due  personal  cleanliness, 
and  thus  enabling  the  skin  to  perform  its  important  functions, 
which  are  so  necessary  to  the  feeling  and  the  possession  of 
health.  Closely,  almost  inseparably,  connected  with  its  use- 
fulness in  this  way,  is  its  paramount  office  in  the  washing  of 
our  garments  and  household  linen.  In  the  house  itself  it  is 
impossible  to  remove,  without  the  aid  of  water,  the  deposit  of 
dust  and  fine  ashes  that  arise  from  smoke,  and  the  air  and 
gases  given  out  in  respiration.  As  a  means  of  preserving  pub- 
lic health,  which  is  but  a  collective  term  for  that  of  the  indi- 


136 

viduals  who  constitute  the  public,  water  ranks  next  to  air. 
Unless  it  be  obtained  in  abundance,  there  cannot  be  clean 
streets,  nor  can  either  scavenging,  by  removal  of  surface-refuse, 
or  sewerage,  by  carrying  off  through  underground  conduits 
this  refuse  and  exuviae  of  all  kinds,  be  properly  performed. 

The  Eeport  of  the  Commissioners  on  the  Health  of  Towns, 
made  about  fifteen  years  ago,  revealed  a  sad  deficiency  of 
water  supply  in  nearly  all  the  cities  angl  burghs  of  England. 
Only  twenty-six  out  of  the  fifty  towns  in  which  their  inves- 
tigations extended,  were  supplied  with  water,  under  the  provi-. 
sions  of  any  act  of  Parliament.  Even  in  these  the  supply  was 
very  deficient,  and  in  many  of  them  it  only  extended  to  a  part 
of  the  town ;  the  poorest  and  most  populous  portions  receiving 
from  it  little  or  no  benefit.  At  Birmingham,  only  8,OOG  out 
of  40,000  houses  are  stated  to  have  been  separately  supplied  ; 
and  at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  where  the  Cholera  made  its  first 
attack  in  1831,  it  was  stated  that  the  company  supplied  about 
one-twelfth  of  the  dwelling-houses,  and  that  very  few  of  these 
had  either  tanks  or  tubs.  In  Bristol,  containing,  with  Clifton, 
upwards  of  100,000  inhabitants,  not  more  than  5,000  per- 
sons, constituting  the  most  wealthy  families,  are  supplied 
with  water  by  pipes  laid  into  their  houses  ;  the  remainder 
were  dependent  on  public  and  private  wells. 

In  contrast  with  these  deficiencies,  and  extravagant  prices 
the  poor  pay  for  water  in  many  places,  is  its  abundance  in 
other  towns,  as  Nottingham  and  Preston,  for  example.  In  the 
former,  the  supply  amounts  to  40  gallons  per  diem  to  each 
family ;  and  in  the  latter,  to  45  gallons.  The  intermittent  sup- 
ply of  water  at  certain  points  in  a  city  is  reprehensible,  both 
on  the  score  of  time  and  morals,  not  to  speak  of  the  confusion 
and  quarreling  in  the  crowd  of  persons  collected  round  the 
water-stands.  It  cannot  be  said  of  our  chief  cities,  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  &c.,  as  it  was  by  the  Commissioners 
when  speaking  of  the  defective  supply  of  water  to  the  poor  in- 


137 


habitants  of  so  many  of  the  English  towns  :  "  The  present  dif- 
ficulty, and  the  labor,  after  a  hard  day's  work,  of  obtaining 
water,  have  a  very  great  effect  on  their  economy,  their  habits, 
and  their  health.  The  obstacles  to  the  maintenance  of  domes- 
tic or  personal  cleanliness  soon  produce  habits  of  personal  care- 
lessness, which  rapidly  lower  both  the  moral  and  physical  con- 
dition of  the  whole  population." 

The  following  is  an  estimate  of  the  average  consumption  of 
water,  per  head,  in  some  of  the  chief  cities,  including  not  only 
what  is  drunk,  but  what  is  consumed  per  diem  in  domestic 
and  manufacturing  purposes,  also  for  baths,  stables,  gardens, 
washing  the  streets,  extinguishing  fires,  &c.  By  an  inhabit- 
ant of  Paris,  2^  gallons;  of  London,  20;  of  Philadelphia,  30; 
of  New  York,  40;  of  Boston,  43;  of  Edinburgh,  19;  of  Glas- 
gow, 27 ;  of  Vienna,  Constantinople,  and  Montpelier,  in 
France,  15 ;  in  all  France,  5  gallons. 

Various  means,  on  a  large  scale,  have  been  adopted  to  cor- 
rect the  impurities  of  water  destined  for  the  supply  of  great 
cities.  These  consist  chiefly  in  filtration  through  gravel,  sand, 
and  charcoal.  Boiling  the  water,  by  destroying  the  animal  and 
vegetable  matter  which  river  and  rain-water  so  generally  con- 
tain, destroys  the  taste  and  odor  dependent  on  this  cause; 
but  recourse  to  such  a  process  cannot  form  a  part  of  public, 
however  useful  it  may  be  in  private,  hygiene.  Boiling  also 
precipitates  some  of  the  earths  which  were  united  with  carbo- 
nic acid ;  but  the  neutral  saline  contents  of  the  water  still  re- 
main; and  hence  it  retains  the  peculiar  flavor  which  was 
owing  to  this  cause. 

The  saving,  in  the  less  wear  and  tear  of  clothes,  and  in  the  ar- 
ticles of  soap  and  soda,  by  the  use  of  soft  water  in  the  place  of 
hard,  is  very  great.  In  London,  for  example,  the  cost  of  soap 
used  per  annum  is  estimated  at  upwards  of  five  millions  of 
dollars. 


138 

Water  in  Leaden  Cisterns  and  Pipes. — A  common  cause 
of  the  deterioration  of  the  purity  of  water  arises  from  the  mode 
of  transmitting  it  from  the  reservoirs  and  main  pipes  to  dwell- 
ing-houses in  leaden  pipes,  for  the  purposes  of  domestic  econo- 
my. It  sounds  paradoxical  to  say,  and  yet  the  assertion  is 
quite  true,  that  the  purer  the  water,  as  respects  its  freedom 
from  saline  impregnation,  the  greater  is  the  danger  of  its  acting 
on  the  lead,  and  converting  a  portion  of  it  into  a  salt  which  is 
there  held  in  solution.  When  we  speak  of  pure  water,  we  sup- 
pose it  to  contain  carbonic  acid,  by  which  its  solvent  power  is 
greatly  increased.  Hence  rain-water  readily  acquires  an  im- 
pregnation of  lead  from  roofs,  gutters,  cisterns,  or  pipes  made 
of  this  metal.  The  saline  substances,  on  the  other  hand,  found 
in  spring  and  river  water,  impair  the  corrosive  action  of 
water  and  air,  and  thus  exert  a  protecting  power.  Of  these, 
the  carbonates  and  sulphates  are  the  most  powerful ;  the 
chlorides  or  muriates  the  least  so.  Dr.  Taylor  believes  that  if 
the  sulphate  of  lime  forms  only  the  five-thousandth  part  of 
water,  no  carbonate  of  lead  is  formed ;  and  this  salt  dissolved 
in  the  above,  or  in  larger  proportion,  in  distilled  water,  will 
still  confer  in  it  the  properties  possessed  by  river  water. 

Dr.  Dana,  who  doubts  the  protecting  property  of  the  salts 
of  lime,  suggests  that  the  changes  in  the  lead  is  produced  by 
a  galvanic  action  between  it  and  iron,  which  may  be  developed 
by  very  slight  difference  in  the  state  of  the  lead,  as  where  the 
soldering  is  with  the  usual  mixture  of  this  latter  and  the  more 
fusible  metals.  Dr.  Dana  proposes,  as  substitutes  for  leaden 
pipes  in  the  conveying  of  water :  "1.  Wood  wherever  it  can  be 
used ;  2.  Cast  iron  or  wrought  iron  tubes  ;  3.  Copper,  pro- 
tected by  pure  tin.  The  use  of  all  other  metals,  or  alloys  of 
these,  in  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge  and  experience  in 
these  objects,  ought  forthwith  to  be  abandoned."  Dr.  Christi- 
son  speaks  of  an  "  effectual  remedy  "  which  has  been  lately  in- 
troduced by  a  patent  invention  for  covering  lead  pipes,  both 


139 

externally  and  internally,  with  a  thin  coating  of  tin.  Little  in- 
convenience can  result  from  the  use  of  leaden  pipes  where  the 
water  flows  through  them  by  hydraulic  pressure,  as  they  can 
be  speedily  emptied  before  using  the  water  which  comes  from 
the  larger  iron  pipes  beyond  them.  It  is  only  in  cases  of  slow 
entrance,  and  retention  for  some  time  of  water  in  leaden  pipes 
and  cisterns,  that  the  question  just  discussed  becomes  a  prac- 
tical one,  affecting  the  public  health, 

EFFECTS  OF  BAD  WATER  FOR  DRINK. — Favored,  as  the  in- 
habitants of  most  of  our  large  cities  are,  in  an  abundant  supply 
of  pure  water  furnished  to  them,  they  are  beginning  to  forget 
that  they  ever  drank  that  which  was  bad,  and  cannot  realize 
fully  the  disastrous  consequences  of  the  habitual  use  of  such  a 
fluid.  Generally,  however,  people  are  more  easily  led  to  be- 
lieve, even  if  they  are  not  themselves  fully  sensible  of  the  fact, 
that  bad  water  is  injurious  to  the  health  than  that  the  air 
which  they  often  breathe  over  and  over  again  is  a  poison. 
One  of  the  first  sanitary  measures  of  a  growing  and  thriving 
population  is  to  procure  for  themselves  a  suitable  supply  of 
good  water.  All  the  people  of  antiquity  were  alive  to  this  fact. 
The  means  on  a  large  scale  adopted  for  the  purpose  both  in 
Rome  and  Carthage  have  been  referred  to  in  this  report.  It  is 
not  necessary  for  me  to  enlarge  on  this  point,  and  I  proceed  to 
mention,  as  a  warning  to  all  young  cities,  the  evils  from  using 
bad  water,  and  as  an  incentive  for  them  to  take  measures  to  pro- 
cure that  which  is  good.  When  this,  our  natural  beverage,  is 
impure,  it  proves  to  be  a  cause  of  protracted  ailments  in  ordi- 
nary seasons,  and  in  those  of  epidemic  visitations  it  acts  as  a  di- 
rectly exciting  cause  of  disease  and  death.  In  marshy  regions, 
in  which  periodical  fevers  abound,  water  is  deemed  by  some, 
on  good  evidence,  to  be  as  actively  a  contributing  cause  as  the 
bad  air  itself.  But  its  malignancy  has  been  particularly  con- 
spicuous in  the  production  of  Cholera.  Dr.  Lankester,  in  de- 
scribing the  three  kinds  of  water  drunk  by  the  inhabitants 


140 

of  London,  viz. :  1,  that  of  the  Thames  and  New  Kiver ;  2, 
that  of  deep  wells,  150  feet  for  example,  below  the  surface ; 
and  3dly,  the  surface  well-waters,  points  out  the  fact  that 
these  last  contain  organic  matters  "  of  precisely  the  same  na- 
ture as  those  found  in  rivers,  which  are  the  receptacles  of  house 
sewerage  and  saline  matters,  common  salt,  ammonia,  the  phos- 
phates, nitric  acid,  &c.,  all  indicative  of  animal  excretion. 
Carbonic  acid  is  largely  present  in  these  surface-waters,  and 
from  the  pleasant  drinking  qualities  it  imparts  to  them,  actu- 
ally makes  the  more  impure  waters  the  most  popular,  and  the 
most  dangerous."  Dr.  Liddle,  Officer  of  Health  to  the  White 
Chapel  District,  relates  the  following  incidents  :  "  In  a  street 
at  Salford,  containing  ninety  houses,  25  deaths  from  Cholera 
occurred  in  thirty  of  these  houses,  the  inhabitants  of  which 
drank  water  from  a  well  into  which  a  sewer  had  leaked ;  in 
the  remaining  sixty  houses,  where  pure  water  was  drunk,  there 
were  11  cases  of  diarrhoea  only,  and  no  deaths."* 

A  gigantic  experiment,  as  Mr.  Simon  calls  it,  was  made  in- 
voluntarily and  in  ignorance  by  the  parties  who  so  largely  suf- 
fered under  it,  in  its  progress  during  two  epidemics  in  the 
southern  districts  of  London.  It  is  related  as  follows  : 

"  These  districts  (comprising  nearly  a  fifth  of  the  population  of 
the  Metropolis)  have  been  notorious  for  the  great  severity  with  which 

Cholera  has  visited  them Throughout  these  districts,  during  the 

epidemics  of  1853-4,  there  were  distributed  two  different  qualities 
of  water ;  so  that  one  large  population  was  drinking  a  tolerably 
good  water,  another  large  population  an  exceedingly  foul  water ; 
while  in  all  other  respects  these  two  populations  (being  intermixed 
in  the  same  districts,  and  even  in  the  same  streets  of  these  districts) 
were  living  under  precisely  similar  social  and  sanitary  circumstances. 
And  when,  at  the  end  of  the  epidemic  period,  the  death-rates  of 
these  populations  were  compared,  it  was  found  that  the  Cholera  mor- 
tality in  the  houses  supplied  by  the  bad  water  had  been  three  and 
a  half  times  as  great  as  in  the  houses  supplied  by  the  better  water. 

*  British  and  Foreign  Med.-Chir.  Rev.,  Jan.  i859. 


141 


Phis  proof  of  the  fatal  influence  of  foul  water  was  rendered 
still  stronger  by  reference  to  what  had  occurred  in  the  epidemic  of 
1848-9.  For  on  that  occasion  the  circumstances  of  the  two  popu- 
lations were  to  some  extent  reversed.  That  company  which,  during 
the  later  epidemic,  gave  the  better  water,  had  given,  during  the 
earlier  epidemic,  even  a  worse  water  than  its  rival's  ;  and  the  popu- 
lation supplied  by  it  had  at  that  time  suffered  a  proportionate 
cholera  mortality.  So  that  the  consequence  of  an  improvement 
made  by  this  water-company  in  the  interval  between  the  two 
epidemics  was,  that  whereas,  in  the  epidemic  of  1848-9  there  had 
died  1925  of  their  tenants,  there  died  in  the  epidemic  of  1853-4 
only  611 ;  while  among  the  tenants  of  the  rival  company  (whose 
supply  between  the  two  epidemics  had  been  worse  instead  of  better), 
the  deaths  which  in  1848-9  were  2880,  had  in  1853-4  increased 
to  3476.  And  when  these  numbers  are  made  proportionate  to  the 
populations  or  tenantries  concerned  in  the  two  periods  respectively, 
it  is  found  that  the  cholera  death-rates  per  10,000  tenants  of  the 
companies  were  about  as  follows:  for  those  who  in  1848-9  drank 
the  worse  water,  125  ;  for  their  neighbors,  who  in  the  same  epi- 
demic drank  a  water  somewhat  less  impure,  l\S  ;  for  those  who  in 
1853-4  drank  the  worst  water  which  had  been  supplied,  130 ;  for 
those  who  in  this  epidemic  drank  a  comparatively  clear  water,  37. 
The  quality  of  water  which  (as  is  illustrated  in  the  first  three  of 
these  numbers)  has  produced  such  fatal  results  in  the  metropolis, 
causing  two-thirds  of  the  cholera  deaths  in  those  parts  of  London 
which  have  most  severely  suffered  from  the  disease,  has  been  river- 
water  polluted  by  town  drainage — water  pumped  from  the  Thames 
within  range  of  the  sewage  of  London — water  which,  according  to 
the  concurrent  testimony  of  chemical  and  microscopical  observers, 
was  abundantly  charged  with  matters  in  course  of  putrefactive 
change."  (Mr.  Simon's  "  Report,"  p.  14.) 

Dr.  Sutherland,  in  his  report  to  the  General  Board  of 
Health  en  the  cholera  epidemic  of  1849,  says,  that  the  injurious 
effects  of  unwholesome  water  had  been  manifest  in  nearly 
every  affected  place  ;  and  adds,  that  a  number  of  most  severe 
and  fatal  outbursts  of  Cholera  were  referable  to  no  other  cause 


142 

except  the  state  of  the  water-supply,  and  this  especially  where 
it  had  been  obtained  from  wells  into  which  the  contents  of 
sewers,  privies,  or  the  drainage  of  grave-yards  had  escaped. 
Since  that  time  much  additional  evidence  of  a  confirmatory 
character  has  been  collected.  Two  examples  are  recorded  by 
Dr.  Acland,  in  his  valuable  and  interesting  "  Memoir  on  the 
Cholera  in  Oxford  " — the  parish  of  St.  Clements,  which  suf- 
fered a  large  mortality  in  1832,  when  the  inhabitants  had 
filthy  water  from  a  sewer-receiving  stream,  and  an  insignificant 
mortality  in  1849  and  1854,  when  the  water  was  derived 
from  a  purer  source.  The  other  case  is  that  of  the  county 
jail,  in  which  cases  have  occurred  in  every  epidemic,  whilst 
the  city  jail,  which  is  not  far  from  the  other,  has  uniformly 
escaped.  The  only  apparent  difference  between  the  two  estab- 
lishments in  1854,  seems  to  have  been  that  the  supply  of 
water  for  the  use  of  the  county  jail,  and  of  which  the  soup 
and  gruel  were  made,  was  pumped  from  a  filthy  well-pool, 
within  ten  feet  of  one  of  the  prison  drains.  No  sooner  were 
the  supply-pipes  disconnected  with  this  impure  source,  than 
Cholera  and  Diarrhoea  ceased.  It  appears  from  an  elaborate 
inquiry  by  the  General  Board  of  Health,  at  the  close  of  the 
cholera  epidemic  of  1854,  that  the  contrasted  effects  of  the 
disease  on  the  people  of  two  large  sections  of  the  population, 
are  only  explicable  by  the  fact  that  one  division,  comprising 
a  population  of  about  268,171  persons,  drank  impure  water; 
whilst  the  other,  numbering  about  166,906  persons,  used  a 
clearer,  and  comparatively  pure  water.  The  two  classes 
resided  in  the  same  localities,  breathed  the  same  atmosphere, 
comprehended  the  same  classes,  and  averaging  the  same 
habits  of  life ;  in  short,  placed  in  circumstances  nearly  iden- 
tical, saving  the  difference  in  the  source  whence  they  obtained 
their  water  for  drink.  The  mortality  from  Cholera  among  the 
drinkers  of  impure  water — of  water  impregnated  with  the 
sewage  of  the  metropolis,  and  containing  in  solution  a  large 


143 

quantity  of  saline  matter,  derived  from  the  intermixture  of 
sea-water — being  at  the  rate  of  130  to  every  10,000  ;  that  of 
the  drinkers  of  the  pure  water  being  only  at  the  rate  of  37  to 
every  10,000  persons  living.* 

In  the  report  on  Epidemic  Cholera  in  London,  in  1854,  by 
Dr.  Sutherland,  much  interesting  information  is  afforded  on 
the  influence  of  water  upon  the  spread  of  the  disease.  The 
deduction  from  the  microscopical  and  chemical  examination  of 
the  water  used  in  the  houses  and  neighborhoods  where  the 
disease  was  most  prevalent,  by  Dr.  Hassall,  was :  "  That 
there  is  no  water  supplied  to  the  metropolis  that  does  not 
contain  dead  and  living  organic  matter,  animal  and  vegetable. 
But  the  Thames  Ditton  water,  supplied  by  the  Lambeth 
Company,  is  by  much  the  purest  of  the  waters,  while  the 
Southwark  and  Vauxhall  water  is  one  of  the  worst,  and  the 
waters  of  the  other  companies  might  be  arrayed  in  a  series 
between  these  two."  From  an  inquiry  instituted  by  the 
Registrar-General,  the  following  results  appear :  "  In  26,107 
houses  that  derived  the  water  from  Ditton,  313  deaths  from 
Cholera  occurred  in  ten  weeks.  In  the  40,046  houses  that 
received  the  impure  water  from  Battersea,  2445  persons,  it 
was  ascertained,  died  from  Cholera  in  the  same  time.  The 
deaths  in  the  latter  districts  exceeded  by  nearly  2000  the 
deaths  that  would  have  occurred  if  Cholera  had  only  been  as 
fatal  as  it  was  in  the  houses  that  derived  their  water  from 
Ditton."  Dr.  Sutherland  makes  the  following  remarks  upon 
these  results  :  "  When  it  is  considered  that  the  sanitary  con- 
dition of  -the  population  does  not  materially  differ,  except  in 
the  quality  of  the  water  supplied  by  the  two  companies,  it  is 
difficult  to  resist  this  statistical  evidence  of  the  predisposing 
effect  of  the  Battersea  water,  and  of  the  loss  of  life  which  has 
arisen  from  its  use.f 

*  British  and  Foreign  Med.-Chir.  Rev.,  January,  1857. 
f  Ibid.  July,  1855. 


144 

The  deleterious  effects  of  impure  water  are  not  seen  in 
cities  or  large  towns  alone  ;  they  occur  in  small  villages,  some- 
times in  the  solitary  farm-house — any  place,  in  fine,  in  which 
the  pump  or  draw-well  is  in  the  midst  of  a  farm-yard  or  filthy 
court ;  receiving  the  surface-drainage  of  heaps  of  stable  ma- 
nure, pig-sties,  &c.  How  often  do  we  notice,  says  Dr.  W.  J. 
Cox,  green,  slimy,  stagnant  pools,  in  the  close  vicinity,  and 
affording  the  sole  water-supply,  of  cottages.  Such  a  state  of 
things  does  not  often  occur  in  this  country  ;  but  in  too  many 
instances  there  is  a  neglect  to  obtain  an  adequate  supply  of 
pure  water,  the  penalty  is  paid  in  the  frequent  occurrence  of 
bowel-complaint,  and  the  sudden  inroads  of  epidemic  cholera, 
which  makes  its  attacks  without  any  other  apparent  provoca- 
tion. In  the  new  settlements  of  the  West,  the  enterprising 
pioneer  and  his  family  often  pay  a  tax  in  the  shape  of  disease, 
and  not  seldom  of  life  itself,  from  the  use  of  bad  water  or  its 
imperfect  supply ;  and  in  new  towns  other  schemes  of  improve- 
ment are  tried,  before  sanitary  measures,  both  for  present  and 
future  protection,  such  as  paving,  drainage,  and  a  supply  of 
good  potable  water,  are  thought  of. 

Dr.  Cox  tells  us,  that  water  tainted  with  various  organic 
matters,  whether  gaseous,  as  carbide  or  sulphide  of  hydrogen, 
or  solid,  as  putrescent  vegetable  fibre,  or  vitalized,  as  algse, 
confervas,  hydrae,  fungi,  infusoria,  &c. — is  a  very  frequent 
cause  of  severe  visitations  of  bowel  complaints  during  the 
summer  months.  Several  instances  came  under  his  own  ob- 
servation, in  1853  and  1854,  of  the  aggravation  of  epidemic 
diarrhoea  from  this  cause.  "  That  water  falling  on  a  growing 
soil,  and  running  off  to  lie  in  stagnant  pools,  is  sure  to  become 
tainted  with  animal  and  vegetable  life,  is  well  known ;  and 
when  to  this  is  supperadded  the  circumstances  of  the  said  soil 
being  highly  charged  with  effete  organic  products,  the  water 
thus  collected  must  necessarily  be  highly  impure,  and  most 
unfit  for  human  consumption.  Yet  very  often  it  forms  the 


145 

only  available  source  of  supply."  Dr.  Cox  alludes  to  epi- 
demic scarlatina  simplex  showing  itself  in  a  small  agricultu- 
ral village  in  the  west  of  England,  in  August,  1856.  There 
occurred  in  all  thirty-eight  cases,  chiefly  among  the  peasant- 
ry, whereof  three  proved  fatal.  Two  of  these  were  in  one 
house,  the  residence  of  a  wealthy  farmer.  Here  the  disease 
changed  its  character,  assuming  the  worst  asthenic  type,  with 
intense  throat-affection,  and,  as  is  so  frequently  the  case,  de- 
fying all  treatment.  The  persons  attacked  were  a  servant 
girl  and  three  children,  the  two  oldest  of  the  latter  of  whom 
died.  The  younger  child  and  the  servant  girl  recovered  with 
some  difficulty.  The  probable  cause  of  the  malignity  and  fa- 
tality of  the  disease  in  this  family  was  its  bad  water-supply. 
It  was  derived  from  a  shallow  draw-well  in  the  back-yard, 
imperfectly  covered,  surrounded  by  heaps  of  decomposing 
manure  and  cow-sheds,  the  black  drainings  from  which  were 
constantly  flowing  over  the  soil.  Dr.  Cox  examined  the 
water  from  this  well  on  two  occasions,  before  and  after  heavy 
rains.  The  first  analysis  showed  sixty  grains  of  solid  matter 
(chiefly  nitrates)  in  the  gallon,  of  which  five  grains  were  un- 
decomposed  organic  matter.  The  second  analysis  (after  the 
rain)  gave  the  enormous  amount  of  between  seven  and  eight 
grains  of  organic  matter.  The  rest  of  the  village  derived  its 
chief  supply  of  water  from  a  good  public  well,  situated  at  a 
little  distance  in  a  large  field,  and  properly  covered  from  the 
weather. 

Water  tainted  with  putrid  contents  sends  into  the  air  a 
much  larger  quantity  of  noxious  organic  matter  than  it  re- 
ceives from  the  air.  If  we  take  the  Thames  river,  for  an 
example,  where  it  flows  through  London,  it  has  been  calcu- 
lated that  4,000,000  of  gallons  of  water  rise  daily,  in  the  form 
of  vapor,  from  the  surface  of  the  river  within  the  city  limits, 
carrying  with  it  into  the  atmosphere  some  portion  of  the 

putrid  contents  of  the  river. 
10 


146 


INTEMPERANCE. — The  transition  is  easy  from  one  noxious 
drink  to  another — from  bad  water  (nature  perverted)  to  alco- 
holic liquors  (art  perverted) — viewed  as  the  cause  of  so  much 
intemperance  and  disease,  un,der  a  great  variety  of  aspects. 
As  a  question  of  public  health  it  comes  necessarily  under  our 
notice,  and  as  such  alone  it  can  be  studied  here.  We  are  not 
called  upon  to  arbitrate  between  the  two  doctrinal  extremes 
in  regard  to  the  dietetic  usage  of  this  class  of  drinks,  but  sim- 
ply to  look  at  things  as  we  find  them,  and,  as  in  the  case  of 
any  other  form  of  physical  evil  afflicting  a  fellow-creature, 
either  standing  by  itself,  or  implicating  at  the  same  time  the 
moral  and  intellectual  faculties,  to  limit,  if  possible,  its  diffu- 
sion, and  to  find  means  for  its  prevention.  The  first  of  these 
objects  aimed  at,  is  done  by  legislative  enactmsnts,  enforced 
by  suitable  penalties ;  the  second,  or  preventive,  is  more 
certainly  brought  about  by  individual  will,  aided  by,  and  at 
the  same  time  aiding,  voluntary  association  with  others. 
Everywhere  drunkards,  or,  ajf  they  are  usually  called,  the  in- 
temperate, which  is  the  more  correct  term  of  designation,  are 
among  the  first  victims  of  epidemic,  and  also  contagious  febrile 
diseases.  They  are  more  readily  attacked,  and  more  readily 
sink  under  disease,  than  any  other  class  of  persons.  "  The 
pernicious  effects  of  intemperance,  in  predisposing  to  the  dis- 
ease [cholera],  have  been  recognized  by  all  writers,  in  the 
East  Indies  as  well  as  the  different  countries  of  Europe. 
What,  then,  must  have  been  the  mischief  done  by  this  debas- 
ing and  life-destroying  sin  in  a  country  like  ours  [England], 
where  it  has  been  computed  that  upwards  of  twenty  millions 
of  sterling  are  annually  spent  upon  ardent  spirits  alone  ?"* 

The  value  of  temperate  habits  among  the  poor,  in  prolong- 
ing life  and  diminishing  sickness,  has  been  exhibited  in  the 
comparison  of  temperance  provident  societies  with  other 
societies.-  The  Teetotal  Society  in  Preston  (of  which  how- 

*  Brit,  and  For.  Med.-Chir.  Rev.,  vol.  vii.  p.  33. 


147 

ever,  the  numbers  are  rather  small  for  the  purpose  of  any 
general  deduction),  presents,  as  we  learn  from  the  sanitary- 
report  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Clay,  not  merely  the  smallest  propor- 
tion of  sick,  but  it  also  suffers  the  shortest  average  duration 
of  illness.  The  annual  mortality  in  the  Temperance  Provi- 
dent Society  (of  London),  during  seven  years,  has  averaged 
only  4  in  1,000.  In  agricultural  laborers,  in  the  prime  of 
life,  the  most  highly-favored  of  the  working-classes,  it  is  8  per 
1,000.  Among  healthy  persons,  generally,  it  is  rated  at  10 
per  1,000.  Among  clerks,  at  the  same  age,  it  is  no  less  than 
23  per  1,000. 

It  will  naturally  be  asked  whether  sanitary  measures, 
which  are  admitted  to  be  both  necessary  and  praiseworthy, 
or  preventing  the  noxious  effects  of  bad  air,  generated  by 
street  and  household  refuse  arid  impurities,  or  by  a  neglect  of 
paving  and  sewerage,  as  well  as  for  arresting  the  sale  of  taint- 
ed meat  and  spoiled  provisions  generally,  should  not  also  be 
,  brought  to  bear  against  the  abuse,  if  not  the  use,  of  so  active 
a  poison  as  alcohol,  especially  in  its  stronger  forms  of  combi- 
nation. In  some  countries  in  Europe  the  apothecary  is  for- 
bidden to  sell  a  poison  without  an  express  prescription  or 
order  from  a  physician ;  and  in  every  country  he  would  be 
looked  upon  as  open  to  prosecution,  if  he  passed  across  his 
counter  a  poison,  with  a  knowledge  that  the  purchaser  intend- 
ed to  make  use  of  it  at  the  peril,  if  not  the  cost,  of  his  life. 
Ought  a  man  or  a  woman — for  the  sex  is  not  always  ashamed 
to  be  seen  engaged  in  such  a  calling — behind  a  bar,  be  allow- 
ed privileges  not  granted  to  an  educated  and  careful  apothe- 
cary ?  But,  while  we  condemn  the  apothecary  for  selling  a 
small  vial  of  laudanum,  the  contents  of  which,  if  swallowed, 
cause  insensibility  and  other  alarming  symptoms,  if  not  death 
itself,  we  can  not  only  tolerate,  but  give,  as  voters,  and  legis- 
lators, and  judges,  our  countenance  to  the  bar-tender,  whose 
customer  is  allowed  to  drink  his  bottle  of  distilled  liquor,  with 


148 

a  similar  risk  of  being  made — dead-drunk — insensible,  and 
sometimes  ending  his  life  in  this  state  of  insensibility.  No 
terms  of  censure  and  condemnation  are  thought  to  be  too 
severe  on  the  person  who  is  administering,  at  stated  intervals, 
a  slow  but  certain  poison,  with  intent  to  kill ;  but  men  gen- 
erally have  little  to  allege  against  the  person  who  also  admin- 
isters, across  his  bar,  a  certain  poison,  under  the  plea  of  his 
ignorance  of,  it  may  be  his  indifference  to,  the  consequences. 
The  more  violent  and  acute  paroxysmal  disturbances,  induced 
by  alcoholic  drinks,  sometimes  excite  alarm,  but  the  popular 
mind  has  not  attained  to  a  full  knowledge  of  the  subject,  as 
far  as  relates  to  its  chemical  and  physiological  relations ;  and 
until  it  is  enlightened  on  these  points,  we  must  be  slow  to 
censure  those  who  still  foster,  directly  or  indirectly,  the  habit 
of  intemperance,  by  refusing  to  sanction,  or  themselves  to  set 
the  example  of,  the  avoidance  of  a  practice  which  so  soon  and 
so  often  becomes  a  habit,  and  a  dangerous  habit  too. 

One  important  effect  of  alcoholic  drinks,  which  pervades  the 
entire  organism,  while  it  seems  at  first  confined  to  the  function " 
of  respiration,  is  to  diminish  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  eli- 
minated from  the  lungs  and  skin.  Valentin,  Prout,  Fyfe,  and 
Vierordt,  certify  to  this  fact.  Dr.  E.  Smith  speaks  of  brandy 
and  beer  as  greatly  decreasing  the  respiration,  and  the  quantity 
of  carbonic  acid  exhaled.  Dr.  Bocker  found,  from  his  experi- 
ments on  his  own  person,  that  those  beverages  diminished  by 
at  least  one-fifth  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid  exhaled.  In 
1854,  Mr.  W.  J.  Cox,  from  whose  paper*  we  are  now  borrow- 
ing, performed  the  experiment  of  collecting  the  carbonic  acid 
evolved  from  the  lungs  of  two  healthy  individuals  during  one 
hour,  both  before  and  after  administering  a  dose  of  alcohol, 
in  the  shape  of  whisky.  In  the  first  case,  the  quantity  of 
gas  evolved,  previously  to  taking  the  alcohol,  was  twelve  hun- 

*  Epidemics  and  their  Every-day  Causes,  in  Sanitary  Review,  vol.  iv.  p. 
259-60. 


149 

dred  cubic  inches  ;  after  it,  nine  hundred  and  fifty  only.  In 
the  case  of  the  other  person,  the  quantities  were  respectively 
nine  hundred,  and  six  hundred  and  twenty  cubic  inches. 
These  facts  show,  continues  Mr.  Cox,  that  the  presence  of 
alcohol  in  the  circulating  current  is  always  associated  with  a 
diminished  percentage  of  carbonic  acid  in  the  air  expired, 
and  in  the  exhalation  from  the  cutaneous  surface.  The  blood 
becomes  thereby  loaded  with  effete  carbon.  An  analysis  was 
made  by  Mr.  C.  in  1850,  of  the  blood  of  two  delirium  tre- 
mens  patients.  It  was,  in  both  instances,  attenuated  and  defi- 
cient in  plastic  material ;  containing  a  great  excess,  or  from  six 
to  eight  times  more  than  common,  of  fatty  matters.  Lecanu  found 
in  one  case  of  a  sot,  the  still  higher  proportion  of  one  hundred  and 
seventeen  parts  in  one  thousand.  Now,  any  agent  which  checks 
the  depuration  of  blood  in  the  lungs,  and  retains  in  them 
the  effete  products  of  the  circulation,  as  is  done  in  the  case  of 
the  blood  of  a  drunkard,  must  be  eminently  deleterious.  It 
yet  remains  to  be  determined  whether  the  blood  of  a  moderate 
habitual  drinker  is  pro  tanto  in  a  similar  state.  Were  we  to 
draw  conclusions  from  the  prompt  effects  in  the  experiments 
by  Mr.  Cox,  we  should  answer  in  the  affirmative.  This 
writer  has,  however,  no  hesitation  in  urging  "the  following 
fact,  which  has  received  overwhelming  proof,  that  the  least 
habitual  excess  beyond  a  very  moderate  indulgence  in  fer- 
mented beverages  lowers  the  vital  properties  of  the  blood ; 
destroys  the  normal  tone  of  the  nervous  centres ;  and  as  a 
constant  sequela  most  powerfully  predisposes  the  frame  to  the 
absorption  of  epidemic  virus  of  whatever  kind.  Pure 
aerated  blood  affords  the  best  safeguard  against  the  attack  of 
any  epidemic.  But  the  more  perfect  system  of  house  ven- 
tilation, cleanliness,  &c.,  will  fail  to  secure  this,  if  by  the 
constant  imbibition  of  alcohol  in  excess,  the  functions  of  the 
lungs  and  skin  are  interfered  with,  their  healthy  relations  de- 
.  stroyed,  and  their  waste  products  retained  within  the  current." 


150 

We  have  the  encouraging  reflection  in  nearly  all  the  efforts 
and  plans  of  hygienic  reform,  that  as  one  evil  often  gives 
strength  to  another,  so  does  the  abatement  of  one  evil  aid  in 
bringing  about  a  similar  change  in  regard  to  another ;  and 
hence,  as  living  in  filth,  breathing  a  close  and  impure  air,  and 
want  of  nutritious  food,  and  of  adequate  hours  of  sleep,  pre- 
dispose to  intemperance  in  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks,  so  will 
cleanliness,  light,  fresh  air,  proper  food,  and  diminished  toil, 
do  much  to  prevent  the  habit  being  formed,  or  to  cure  it  if  it 
has  been  formed.  Judicious  sanitary  reform  is  therefore  fa- 
vorable to  temperance,  as  e  converso,  temperance  is  an  indis- 
pensable auxiliary  to  sanitary  reform — if  only  by  its  inspiring 
the  individuals  who  are  to  be  its  subjects  with  a  desire,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  the  requisite  bodily  vigor,  to  engage  in  in- 
dustrial pursuits.  Everybody  must,  by  this  time,  be  familiar 
with  the  fact  of  the  pecuniary  loss  to  his  family  by  the  idle- 
ness of  the  inebriate,  and  the  cost  to  the  public  treasury  for 
his  ultimate  support  in  the  last  stage  of  destitution  ;  to  say 
nothing  of  the  expense  of  measures  of  repression  and  punish- 
ment called  for  by  the  breaches  of  peace  and  crimes  commit- 
ted by  the  intemperate. 

PREVENTABLE  DISEASES  AND  MORTALITY. — Having  ex- 
hibited one  view  of  the  importance  of  sanitary  measures  for 
cities,  viz.,  that  arising  from  the  attention  at  all  times  given 
to  them  as  a  necessary  condition  for  growth  and  prosperity, 
and  the  punishment  in  various  ways,  and  often  on  a  large 
scale,  when  the  subject  has  been  neglected,  we  shall  next  take 
a  more  pleasing  and  encouraging  one,  and  which  contrasts 
strongly  with  the  first.  But  before  noticing  some  of  the  be- 
neficial changes  in  the  physical  well-being  and  comfort,  and 
even  an  improved  moral  tone,  which  have  resulted  from  sani- 
tary reform,  we  have  yet  to  say  something  on  losses  of  life 
and  money  incurred  in  many  places,  by  the  persistence  in  old 


151 

abuses,  owing  more  to  ignorance  of  hygienic  laws,  than  to 
purposed  wrong-doing  or  want  of  humanity. 

Dr.  Lyon  Playfair,  taking  the  single  county  of  Lancashire, 
in  England,  which  includes  indeed  the  large  cities  of  Liver- 
pool and  Manchester  in  its  bounds,  showed  some  years  ago, 
by  tabular  statements,  that  there  are  every  year  in  Lancashire 
14,000  deaths,  and  398,000  cases  of  sickness  which  might  be 
prevented,  and  that  11,000  of  the  deaths  consists  of  adults 
engaged  in  productive  labor.  They  farther  show,  continues 
Dr.  Playfair,  that  every  individual  in  Lancashire  lives  19 
years,  or  only  one-half  of  the  proper  term  of  his  life,  and 
that  every  adult  loses  more  than  ten  years  of  life,  and  from  pre- 
mature old  age  and  sickness  much  more  than  that  period  of 
working  ability.  Without  taking  into  consideration  the  dim- 
inution of  the  physical  and  moral  energies  of  the  survivors 
from  sickness  and  other  depressing  causes  ;  without  estimating 
the  losses  from  the  substitution  of  young  and  inexperienced 
labor  for  that  which  is  skillful  and  productive ;  without  in- 
cluding the  heavy  burdens  incident  to  the  large  amount  of 
preventable  widowhood  and  orphanage ;  calculating  the  loss 
from  the  excess  of  births  resulting  from  the  excess  of  deaths, 
or  the  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  an  infantile  population,  near- 
ly one-half  of  which  is  swept  off  before  it  attains  two  years 
of  age,  and  about  59  per  cent,  of  which  never  become  adult 
productive  laborers  ;  and  with  data  in  every  case  much  below 
the  truth,  Dr.  Playfair  estimates  the  actual  pecuniary  burdens 
borne  by  the  community  in  the  support  of  removable  disease 
and  death  in  Lancashire  alone,  at  the  annual  sum  of  five  mil- 
lions of  pounds  sterling — twenty-five  millions  of  dollars. 
He  would  draw  attention  to  the  columns  respecting  the  num- 
ber of  preventable  cases  of  death  and  sickness  in  Liverpool 
and  Manchester,  or  in  any  other  of  the  large  towns,  to  show 
the  immense  amount  of  money  which  might  be  saved  by 
proper  sanitary  arrangements. 


152 

Another  view  of  the  subject  of  preventable  diseases  and 
deaths  is  presented  in  the  following  guise  :  Taking  the  least 
unfavorable  sanitary  conditions  of  a  certain  number  of  people 
living  in  sixty-four  districts,  in  various  parts  of  England,  as  a 
standard,  we  may  call  the  difference  between  this  and  the 
general  mortality  as  preventable,  and  make  our  estimates  ac- 
cordingly. The  people  now  referred  to  dwell  in  sixty-four  dis- 
tricts, extending  over  4, 797, 31 5  square  miles,  and  their  number 
at  the  last  census  was  973,070,  or  nearly  a  million  of  souls.  Al- 
though living  undoubtedly  Tinder  many  favorable  sanitary  con- 
ditions, yet  investigations  will  lead  to  the  detection  of  many 
sources  of  insalubrity,  such  as  small,  close,  and  crowded  bed- 
rooms, and  a  neglect  of  cleanliness  of  person,  and  in  the  surroun- 
ings.  And  yet  after  all,  "  the  annual  mortality  per  1000  of  this 
million  of  men,  women,  and  children,  year  after  year,  does  not 
exceed  17.  Is  it  not  evident,  that  under  more  favorable  auspi- 
ces, the  death-rate  would  be  still  lighter  ?  Under  such  sanitary 
conditions  as  are  known,  and  with  all  the  appliances  existing, 
can  we  not  imagine  a  community  living  a  healthier  life  than 
those  isolated  people  ?"*  Setting  out,  however,  from  this  stan- 
dard, we  are  safe  in  affirming  that  deaths  in  a  people  exceed- 
ing 17  in  1000  annually,  are  unnatural  deaths.  "  If  the  peo- 
ple were  shot,  drowned,  burnt,  poisoned  by  strychnine,  their 
deaths  would  not  be  more  unnatural  than  the  deaths  wrought 
clandestinely  by  disease  in  excess  of  the  quota  of  natural 
death;  that  is,  an  excess  of  seventeen  deaths  in  1000  living." 

It  may  be  alleged  that  an  excess  of  deaths  over  the  stan- 
dard is  inevitable  in  large  cities,  but,  as  justly  remarked  by 
the  Review,  whose  train  of  argument  we  are  now  following, 
we  lack  the  measure-line  between  the  attainable  and  the  inev- 
itable loss.  "  In  London,  during  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
population  lived  about  twenty  years  on  an  average,  and  50 
died  out  of  1000  living ;  consequently  the  excess  over  17  was 

*  Sanitary  Review,  vol.  iv  pp.  87-8. 


153 


33.  That  this  excess  was  .not  inevitable  is  now  demonstrated; 
for,  with  a  great  increase  in  number,  the  population  now  lives 
about  37  years,  and  the  mortality  has  fallen  to  25  in  1000. 
Is  the  excess  of  8  deaths  a  year  among  every  1000  living,  in- 
evitable ?  This  cannot  be  admitted  for  a  moment,  if  we  regard 
only  the  imperfect  state  of  the  sanitary  arrangements  which 
the  public  authorities  of  London  have  within  their  power. 
Nor  can  it  be  admitted  that  the  excess  of  5  deaths — or  22 
deaths  instead  of  17 — a  year,  on  every  thousand  living,  is  inev- 
itable in  England  and  Wales,  with  evidence  before  our  eyes 
of  the  same  violations  of  nature  in  every  district."  Of  the 
420,019  persons  who  died  in  England  in  1857,  about  328,163 
would  have  died  had  the  mortality  not  exceeded  the  standard 
of  17. deaths  in  1000  living.  Of  the  difference,  91,856,  or 
what  may  be  called  the  unnatural  deaths,  18,328  happened  in 
the  country,  or  in  the  village  districts,  and  73,528  in  the  town 
districts.  To  extend  the  argument.  Within  the  shores  of 
the  islands  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  dwell  nearly  eight 
millions  of  people  who  "  do  not  live  out  half  their  days  ;  a  hun- 
dred and  forty  thousand  of  them  die  every  year  unnatural 
deaths  ;  two  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  are  constantly  suf- 
fering from  actual  diseases,  which  do  not  prevail  in  healthy 
places ;  their  strength  is  impaired  in  a  thousand  ways  ;  their 
affections  and  intellects  are  disturbed,  deranged,  and  dimin- 
ished by  the  same  agencies." 

Dr.  Hutchinson  sums  up  the  loss  to  the  city  of  London, 
growing  out  of  the  preventable  deaths,  10,000  in  number,  and 
of  the  preventable  cases  of  sickness,  20,000  in  number,  annu- 
ally, to  be,  for  funerals,  medical  attendance,  loss  of  wages,  and 
expense  of  widows  and  orphans,  £500,000,  or  $2,500,000. 
In  addition  to  this,  he  estimates  the  loss  to  the  community  at 
£1,000,000,  or  $5,000,000.  He  charges  to  the  same  account 
the  sums  that  might  be  saved  by  the  consolidation  of  existing 
boards  and  companies,  improved  water-supply,  suppression  of 


154 


smoke-nuisance,  and  revenue  from  sewer-water,  amounting  to 
more  than  another  million  of  pounds,  or  five  millions  of  dol- 
lars. This  gives  a  sum  of  nearly  three  millions  of  pounds,  or 
fifteen  millions  of  dollars,  lost  by  preventable  disease  and 
death,  and  otherwise  bad  sanitary  economy,  to  the  city  of  Lon- 
don. Mr.  Banfield's  estimate  of  loss  to  the  United  Kingdom, 
from  these  causes,  amounts  to  fifty-five  millions  of  pounds, 
or  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  millions  of  dollars,  per 
annum. 

In  the  single  State  of  Massachusetts  an  estimate  exhibits 
an  annual  loss  to  the  commonwealth  of  $62,000,000  to 
$93,000,000  by  the  premature  death  of  persons  over  15  years 
of  age. 

Of  the  preventable  mortality  a  large  proportion  occurs  in 
the  early  or  infantile  period.  Parents,  on  the  spot,  would  be 
startled  at  the  announcement  that  the  probabilities  are  against 
their  child  reaching  its  second  year ;  and  yet  in  Manchester, 
Mr.  Roberton  assures  us,  in  his  account  of  the  statistics  of 
mortality  in  that  town,  that  for  every  100  infants  born  (in  the 
township),  upwards  of  33  males  and  26  females  die  within  the 
year ;  whereas  in  Dorsetshire,  the  proportions  are  less  than 
half  .these  numbers.  For  the  next  period  of  life  (from  one  to 
two  years),  the  percentage  of  male  deaths  is  18,  and  of  female 
deaths  upwards  of  16  ;  but  in  Dorsetshire  the  proportions  are 
less  than  one  fourth  of  this  amount. 

In  Liverpool,  the  low  sanitary  state  of  which  has  been 
already  mentioned,  the  proportion  of  deaths  to  the  whole  popu- 
lation is  as  low  as  1  in  28.75,  and  the  average  duration  of  life 
is  only  20  years.  Some  have  thought  that  the  large  emigrant 
floating  population  of  Liverpool,  chiefly  Irish,  contributed 
much  to  the  increased  mortality  and  low  average  of  life  in  that 
city ;  but  this  is  a  fallacy,  exposed  by  Dr.  Playfair,  who  shows 
that  in  both  of  these  particulars  they  have  greatly  the  advan- 
tage of  the  fixed  resident  population. 


155 


Not  only  is  the  mortality  much  increased  by  the  preventable 
causes  of  disease,  but  the  physical  vigor  of  the  survivors  is  dimi- 
nished by  the  same  causes.  The  recruiting  officers  in  the 
county  of  Lancaster,  which  used  to  furnish  the  best  soldiers 
in  the  country,  complained  to  Dr.  Playfair  that  the  sons  are 
less  tall  than  the  fathers,  and  that  the  difficulty  is  constantly 
increasing  of  obtaining  tall  and  able-bodied  men. 

Diseases  of  the  respiratory  organs,  including  phthisis,  exist, 
according  to  Dr.  Playfair,  in  the  great  manufacturing  districts 
of  Lancaster  and  Cheshire,  to  a  greater  extent  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  kingdom. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  mortality  among  the  poorer 
classes  in  England  might  be  reduced  20  per  cent,  by  means 
within  administrative  control,  to  say  nothing  of  the  abatement 
or  removal  of  other  causes  depending  on  their  personal  habits, 
which  are  intimately  associated  with  those  of  the  first-men- 
tioned class. 

In  the  town  of  Preston,  we  learn,  from  the  full  and  exceed- 
ingly interesting  report  of  the  Rev.  J.  Clay,  that,  while  the 
deaths  in  the  whole  town  are  one  in  every  29  persons,  yet  in 
streets  which  are  described  by  him,  where  there  is  a  neglect  of 
sanitary  measures,  and  the  inhabitants  of  which  are  equally 
negligent,  the  proportion  is  one  death  in  every  19  persons. 

The  large  proportion  of  infant  mortality  in  Preston,  among 
the  working  classes — those  least  favored  on  the  score  of  sani- 
tary protection — is  an  evident  melancholy  fact,  bearing  on  the 
same  argument.  With  the  gentry,  the  loss  is  only  17-j  per 
cent,  of  infant  life  (children  under  five  years  of  age),  while 
the  operatives'  loss  is  55.5  per  cent.  For  the  whole  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales  the  percentage  of  deaths  is  39.1. 

The  average  age  of  deaths,  including  children,  of  the  dif- 
ferent classes  in  Preston,  is  still  further  confirmatory  of  the 
position  laid  down.  For  "  gentlemen,"  it  is  47  years ;  for 
"tradesmen,"  32  years  ;  and  for  "laborers,"  18  years. 


156 

In  our  own  country  the  subject  of  infant  mortality  is  one  of 
the  highest  interest,  especially  in  towns.  We  would  again 
refer  to  a  valuable  paper  on  this  very  important  subject,  by 
Dr.  D.  M.  Reese. 

This  gentleman,  in  his  evidence  before  the  New  York  Senate 
Committee,  asserts,  and  as  we  believe  on  good  grounds,  that : 
"  Infant  mortality  in  large  cities  in  a  great  multitude  of  ex- 
amples," &c.,  ending,  "  and  life."  (See  the  Senate  Com- 
mittee, Rep.  p.  99.) 

On  this  subject,  which  is  one  of  such  vital  importance  to 
the  public  health  in  all  cities,  instructive  reference  can  be  made 
to  Mr.  Hartley's  "  Essay  on  Milk,  as  an  article  of  Human 
Sustenance."  The  writer  takes  equally  strong  ground  with 
that  assumed  by  Dr.  Reese,  and  in  confirmation  of  his  view, 
he  adduces  a  certificate,  signed  by  fifty-eight  physicians  of  the 
city  of  New  York,  men  of  professional  eminence  and  worth, 
affirming  their  belief,  that  the  milk  of  cows,  fed  chiefly  on 
distillery  slops,  is  "  extremely  detrimental  to  the  health,  es- 
pecially of  young  children,  as  it  not  only  contains  no  little 
nutriment  for  the  purposes  of  food,  but  appears  to  possess  un- 
healthy and  injurious  properties,  owing  in  part,  probably,  to 
the  confinement  of  the  cows,  and  the  bad  air  which  they  con- 
sequently have  to  breathe,  as  well  as  the  unnatural  and  perni- 
cious nature  of  the  slop  on  which  they  are  fed."  Dr.  Charles 
A.  Lee,  in  two  letters  to  Mr.  Hartley,  adduces  his  personal  ob- 
servations and  experience  to  the  same  purport.* 

Under  the  operation  of  improved  sanitary  measures  in  the 
city  of  New  York,  the  Committee  of  Investigation  believe  that 
the  amount  of  thirteen  millions  of  dollars,  the  estimated  cost 
of  avoidable  sickness  and  death,  and  the  unnecessary  loss  of 
five  thousand  lives  per  annum,  might  be  prevented,  with  an 
effect  upon  the  happiness  and  morals  of  the  people  which  can 
neither  be  reckoned  in  figures  nor  expressed  in  words. 

*  Eleventh  Annual  Report  of  the  New  York  Association  for  Improving  the 
Condition  of  the  Poor,  for  the  year  1854. 


157 

The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  number  of  the  indigent 
sick  who  were  gratuitously  provided  for  by  the  public  institu- 
tions of  the  city  of  New  York,  in  the  year  1853  : 

"  New  York  Dispensary.  . . 46,338 

Eastern                "       19,706 

Northern              "       14,075 

Demilt                  "       9,006 

North-Western    "       4,964 

New  York  Hospital 3,526 

Bellevue  Hospital 4,836 

Blackwell's  Island  Hospital 3,034 

Ward's  Island  Hospital 10,794 

Marine  Hospital 4,938 

Total 121,217 

"  Startling  as  are  the  above  figures,  they  doubtless  fall  far 
short  of  the  reality.  To  this  list  of  121,000  sick,  who  are 
chiefly  unskilled  laborers,  of  the  most  destitute  class,  should 
be  added  multitudes  of  the  same  class  that  are  relieved  by 
private  benevolence,  and  the  numerous  organized  charities  in 
the  city ;  also  those  cared  for  by  the  different  churches  and 
beneficial  societies  ;  and  last,  but  not  least,  the  great  body  of 
operative  artisans,  builders,  &c.,  in  humble  life,  whose  occupa- 
tions sometimes,  but  more  frequently  their  unhealthy  dwell- 
ings, induce  debility,  sickness,  and  incapacity  for  labor." 

"  Infant  mortality,  in  large  cities,  in  a  great  multitude  of 
examples,  which  no  man  can  number,  is  caused  by  the  impure 
and  adulterated  milk,  and  other  unwholesome  articles  of  food, 
which  are  among  the  necessaries  of  life.  Our  profession  has 
ever  and  anon  sought  to  arouse  public  attention  to  this  im- 
portant subject,  but  in  vain.  Distilleries  in  or  near  large 
cities  would  be  an  intolerable  nuisance  and  curse,  apart  from 
the  mischiefs  of  their  manufacture  of  alcoholic  drinks,  in  view 
qf  the  single  fact  that,  wherever  they  exist,  their  slops  will 


I 

158 

furnish  the  cheapest  food  for  cows,  the  milk  from  which  is 
more  pernicious  and  fatal  to  infant  health  and  life  than  alcohol 
itself  to  adults  ;  poisoning  the  very  fountains  of  life.  So  long  as 
distilleries  are  tolerated  in  cities,  cow-stables  will  be  their 
appendages,  and  the  milk,  fraught  with  sickness  and  death, 
will  still  perpetuate  mortality,  especially  among  the  children 
of  the  poor.  All  the  artificial  adulterations  of  milk,  as  by 
water  or  chalk,  &c.,  are  harmless — nay,  laudable,  compared 
with  the  poisonous  supply  obtained  from  cows  fed  on  distillery 
slops,  for  to  this  poison  chemistry  itself  affords  no  antidote, 
since  it  defies  all  analysis  or  synthesis — a  poison  sui  generis, 
utterly  destructive  both  of  health  and  life." 

The  deaths  from  pulmonary  consumption  in  England  and 
Wales  are  represented  to  amount  annually  to  36,000,  of  which 
one  half  are  said  to  occur  in  London.  Dr.  Guy  attributes  the 
great  mortality  from  this  disease  to  be  owing  to  "  defective 
ventilation  of  houses,  shops,  and  places  of  work.  Next  to 
this,  in  point  of  importance,  is  the  inhalation  of  dust,  metallic 
particles,  and  irritating  fumes.  One  cause,  over  which  the 
poor  themselves  can  exercise  control,  is  the  abuse  of  spirituous 
liquors,  a  frightful  source  of  consumption."  The  death-rates 
of  consumption  are  susceptible  of  being  much  diminished. 

Mention  was  made,  under  the  head  of  Ventilation,  of  the 
sufferings,  from  neglect  of  this  matter,  incurred  by  tailors. 
The  economy  of  a  better  sanitary  system  with  them  is  set  forth 
as  follows :  "If  the  employers  and  the  men  had  been  aware 
of  the  effects  of  vitiated  atmosphere  on  the  constitution  and 
general  strength,  and  of  the  means  of  ventilation,  the  practi- 
cable gain  of  money  from  the  gain  of  labor  by  that  sanitary 
measure  could  not  have  been  less,  in  one  large  shop,  employ- 
ing two  hundred  men,  than  £100,000  ($500,000).  Inde- 
pendently of  subscription  of  the  whole  trade,  it  would  diminish 
their  working  period  of  life,  and  have  been  sufficient,  with  the 
enjoyment  of  greater  health  and  comfort  by  every  workman 


159 


during  the  time  of  work,  to  have  purchased  for  him  an  annuity 
of  £1  ($5)  per  week  for  his  comfortable  and  respectable  self- 
support  during  a  period  of  superannuation,  commencing  soon 
after  fifty  years  of  age." 

When  speaking  of  the  greatly  increased  cost  of  sewers, 
owing  to  defective  arrangements  in  their  first  construction,  the 
amount  lost  in  this  way  should  be  put  under  the  head  of 
money  that  might  have  been  saved  by  judicious  sanitary 
measures. 

In  comparing  the  mortality  of  the  town  of  Salford,  in 
which  thirty-one  persons  per  thousand  die  annually,  and  of 
Manchester,  which  is  still  greater,  with  the  neighboring  town 
of  Broughton,  where  only  fourteen  persons  in  a  thousand  die 
annually,  Mr.  Chadwick  enters  into  some  instructive  calcula- 
tions, which  go  to  show  that  there  are  700  deaths  annually 
from  preventable  causes  alone  ;  hence  to  remove  these  causes 
might  insure  an  annual  saving  of  a  sum  of  money  exceeding 
£40,000,  or  $200,000.  To  effect  this  saving,  the  main  thing 
required  is  that  the  working  classes  should  understand  what 
are  the  sanitary  requirements  to  secure  health  and  comfort  to 
their  homes.  The  above  sum  is  based  on  the  estimate  that 
there  are  twenty-five  cases  (Dr.  Play  fair  says  28)  of  illness, 
on  an  average,  to  one  death.  Each  death  costs,  on  an  aver- 
age, £60,  or  $300,  including  funeral  expenses,  medical  attend- 
once,  loss  of  labor,  and  the  like.  The  reference  to  the  neces- 
sity of  awakening  the  intelligence  of  the  working  classes  to  a 
correct  view  of  preventive  hygiene,  reminds  us  of  the  advice 
so  forcibly  expressed  by  Dr.  Kissam,  as  to  the  means  of 
abating  the  evils  of  poverty,  so  as  to  reduce  the  mortality 
among  the  inhabitants  of  certain  districts  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  Dr.  Kissam  says,  with  much  torce:  "  The  poor  must 
have  good  dwellings  to  live  in,  and  they  must  have  medical 
missionaries  to  teach  them  how  to  live.  They  are  taught  upon 
almost  every  other  subject  than  about  how  to  live.  They  do 


160 

not  know  how  to  cook  their  food ;  they  do  not  know  that 
they  are  poisoned  when  four  or  five  of  them  sleep  in  a  room 
without  ventilation." 

SANITARY  IMPROVEMENTS. — The  importance  and  economy 
of  sanitary  measures  for  cities  are  evinced  in  the  great  benefits 
derived  from  sanitary  improvements.  Hamburg  suffered  se- 
verely from  the  cholera  in  1832.  In  1842  occurred  a  grievous 
calamity,  as  it  was  thought  at  the  time,  in  a  fire  which  de- 
stroyed nearly  a  third  of  the  city.  The  rebuilt  portion  shows 
that  in  it  due  attention  has  been  paid  to  drainage  and  other 
requirements  ;  and  the  effect  was  tested  in  its  having  enjoyed 
an  exemption  from  the  cholera  of  1848,  alike  remarkable  and 
important.  A  comparison  of  the  state  of  the  poor,  living  in 
the  rebuilt  parts  of  the  town,  with  those  living  in  the  old 
parts,  showed  that  not  more  than  one  of  the  former  had  been 
attacked  with  cholera  for  ten  of  the  latter.  Exeter,  in  Eng- 
land, affords  another  remarkable  illustration  of  the  benefit  ob- 
tained by  the  adoption  of  improved  hygienic  measures.  These 
consisted  in  improved  drainage,  an  ample  supply  of  good 
water  in  every  part,  pulling  down  of  old  houses,  the  removal 
of  nuisances,  and  greater  general  attention  to  the  sanitary 
condition  of  the  poor.  In  1832,  before  these  reforms  were 
even  thought  of,  the  deaths  from  cholera  were  402,  and  a  vast 
amount  of  suffering,  as  well  as  heavy  expenditures,  inflicted 
on  the  town.  In  1849  not  more  than  ninety-nine  cases  in  all 
occurred  in  Exeter,  and  one  half  of  these  took  place  in  the 
single  parish  of  St.  Edmund,  in  a  low,  unwholesome  district, 
near  the  accumulations  of  a  main  drain  from  the  city,  im- 
mersed in  putrid  exhalations.  A  still  more  instructive  ex- 
ample is  afforded  by  Nottingham.  Upwards  of  1000  cases 
of  cholera,  of  which  nearly  500  were  fatal,  occurred  there  in 
1832.  At  that  time  Nottingham,  like  Exeter,  was  badly  sup- 
plied with  water,  besides  its  being  ill-drained,  extremely  filthy, 
and  very  densely  populated.  The  ravages  of  the  pestilence 


161 

were  confined  in  a  great  measure,  to  the  worst  localities,  the 
higher  and  better-conditioned  district  escaping  almost  entire- 
ly. Since  then  very  much  has  been  done  for  the  improvement 
of  the  town.  It  now  enjoys  an  almost  unlimited  supply  of 
wholesome  filtered  water.  Nuisances  were  removed,  and  the 
condition  of  the  dwellings  of  the  poor  improved.  The  result 
was,  that  in  the  autumn  of  1848,  although  a  filthy  village 
within  five  miles  of  Nottingham  was  severely  attacked,  yet 
the  town  remained  entirely  exempt,  nor  did  a  single  case  oc- 
cur there  until  December  in  the  following  year,  although  there 
had  been  much  diarrhoea  during  the  season — a  clear  proof  that 
the  epidemic  influence  had  been  felt — when  five  fatal  cases  oc- 
curred. In  the  same  line  of  encouraging  results  from  in- 
creased attention  to  hygienic  reforms  occurs  the  example  of 
Tynemouth,  eight  miles  below  Newcastle  and  Gateshead,  in 
the  north  of  England.  This  town,  like  the  last  two  mention- 
ed, suffered  severely  from  cholera  in  1848-49,  losing  463  out 
of  its  population  of  64,248.  Thus  warned,  active  sanitary 
measures  were  adopted,  and  when  in  1852  cholera  was  again 
epidemic,  those  exertions  were  redoubled ;  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, 1852  saw  Newcastle  and  Gateshead  suffering  "from 
the  most  terrible  outbreak  of  cholera  yet  experienced  in  Eng- 
land, whilst  Tynemouth,  only  eight  miles  lower  down  the 
river,  was  exempt,  all  hough  numerous  cases  of  diarrhoea  plain- 
ly showed  that  over  it  the  choleraic  influence  extended,  but 
found  no  congenial  soil."  Evidence  to  the  same  purport  was 
furnished  in  different  cities  of  the  United  States  during  the 
cholera  outbreak  of  1849  ;  as,  for  instance,  in  Boston  and 
Philadelphia — alt  hough  the  sanitary  measures  adopted  did 
not  imply  organic  changes,  but  were  mainly  confined  to  the 
removal  or  abatement  of  certain  nuisances,  domestic  and 
otherwise,  cleansing  the  streets,  &c. 

As  justly  remarked  by  the  British  and  Foreign  Medico- 
Chirurgical  Review,*  to  which  we  are  continually  indebted 

11  *  Vol.  vi.  pp.  36-87 


162 


for  so  much  in  all  that  relates  to  British  sanitary  progress : 
"  But  far  more  gratifying,  in  every  point  of  view,  is  the  clear 
testimony  which  the  late  epidemic  afforded  of  the  strikingly 
beneficial  results  of  substantial  structural  improvements  in 
averting  the  fatal  effects  of  choleraic  disease.  From  a  large 
mass  of  evidence  we  select  the  following  facts  as  illustrative 
of  this  most  important  subject :  The  three  model  lodging- 
houses  in  the  metropolis — two  of  them  situated  in  a  most  un- 
healthy district,  and  where  there  were  numerous  fatal  cases 
around — escaped  almost  entirely.  There  were  a  few  cases  of 
diarrhoea  among  the  inmates  (210  in  number,)  and  only  one 
case  of  cholera,  which  occurred  in  an  old  man  intemperate  and 
ill-fed.  The  complete  immunity  of  the  '  Metropolitan  Build- 
ings' in  Old  Pancras  Road,  containing  upwards  of  500  in- 
mates, was  equally  striking,  although  within  a  few  hundred 
yards  the  epidemic  was  so  severe  that  three  deaths  occurred  in 
one  house,  and  the  whole  neighborhood  was  severely  af- 
flicted with  diarrhoea.  Of  the  metropolitan  prisons,  two  suf- 
fered severely,  while  the  seven  others  remained  nearly  exempt. 
In  the  model  prison  at  Pentonville,  whose  sanitary  arrange- 
ments are  good,  there  was  no  cholera,  and  very  little  diarrhoea 
among  465  inmates.  Giltspur  and  Newgate  prisons  enjoyed,  the 
former  a  complete,  and  the  latter  an  all  but  complete  exemption, 
although  the  district  around  suffered  with  extraordinary  severity. 
The  case  of  the  House  of  Correction,  in  Cold  Bath  Fields,  is, 
perhaps,  the  most  instructive  of  all.  In  1832,  when  the  num- 
ber of  prisoners  was  1148,  there  occurred  319  cases  of  diar- 
rhoea, 207  of  cholera,  and  45  deaths.  At  that  time  the  drainage 
of  the  prison  was  most  faulty,  the  sewers  having  in  places 
fallen  in  and  become  choked  with  soil.  Subsequently  the 
whole  sewerage  was  rebuilt,  and  on  examination  previous  to 
the  late  epidemic  it  was  found  to  be  in  good  order.  The  ven- 
tilation, also,  of  the  cells  had  been  improved,  and  a  small 
open  fire  was  placed  in  each  of  the  day-rooms.  Out  of  1100 


163 

prisoners  there  was  not  a  single  instance  of  cholera,  and  only 
a  few  cases  of  diarrhoea,  which  speedily  yielded  to  prompt 
treatment.  Bridewell  prison  afforded  equally  satisfactory  re- 
sults. In  1832  it  was  in  a  most  filthy  state,  and  the  prison- 
ers were  much  crowded.  Sixteen  cases,  four  fatal,  occurred 
in  the  epidemic  of  that  year.  The  sanitary  arrangements  of 
the  prison  have  since  that  period  "been  rectified ;  and  while 
the  pestilence  raged  on  all  sides  of  it,  in  houses  separated  only 
"by  a  narrow  wall,  no  case  of  cholera  took  place,  though  fresh 
prisoners  of  the  very  lowest  class  were  daily  brought  in. 
There  was  only  one  case  of  the  malignant  form  of  the  disease 
in  Horsemonger  Lane  Jail,  which  is  situated  in  a  district  that 
suffered  most  severely.  The  two  public  metropolitan  lunatic 
asylums  of  Bethlehem  and  Hanwell  escaped  without  loss  of 
life,  although  cholera  prevailed  extensively  and  severely  within 
a  hundred  yards  of  the  former,  and  the  latter  was  visited  with 
a  rather  sharp  attack  of  diarrhoea,  showing  clearly  that  the 
morbific  influence  was  there."  To  these  remarkable  proofs  of 
the  exemption  from  a  fatal  epidemic  enjoyed  by  good  internal 
hygienic  arrangement,  we  may  add  the  case  of  the  jail  at 
Taunton,  a  town  with  a  population  of  16,000,  during  the  pre- 
valence of  the  cholera  in  1849.  Not  a  solitary  case  even  of 
diarrhoaa  occurred  among  the  prisoners  in  tlie  jail ;  which  of- 
fers a  remarkable  contrast  with  the  state  of  things  at  that 
period  in  the  work-house,  the  inmates  of  which  lost  by  death 
from  cholera  22  per  cent,  of  their  number,  or  60  out  of  276. 
This  last  building  was  low,  badly  drained,  and  most  imper- 
fectly ventilated ;  there  were  numerous  nuisances  within  the 
walls  ;  the  people  had  insufficient  space  allowed  them,  and 
personal  cleanliness  was  very  much  neglected.  The  space  al- 
lowed for  each  inmate  was  not  above  two  thirds  of  what  was 
requisite  for  safety.  The  stress  of  the  attack  was  in  the  girls' 
school-room,  in  which  the  greatest  degree  of  over-crowding  ex- 
isted. The  prisoners  in  the  jail  were  much  better  cared  for 
than  the  poor  inmates  of  the  Union  Work-house.  Each  cell 


164 

contained  from  800  to  900  feet  and  upwards  of  air,  besides 
being  systematically  ventilated  and  warmed,  to  maintain  an 
even  temperature  throughout  the  twenty-four  hours.  More- 
over, each  prisoner  had  the  means  of  personal  cleanliness,  and 
attention  to  this  was  strictly  enforced  throughout  the  building. 
The  result  was  that  the  health  of  the  prisoners  remained 
throughout  perfectly  good. 

A  similar  exemption  from  cholera  in  1849  was  enjoyed  by 
the  Eastern  Penitentiary  of  Pennsylvania  in  Philadelphia. 

PULMONARY  AND  CUTANEOUS  PURIFICATION. — The  consen- 
taneous, and  in  a  measure  identical  action  of  the  lungs  and 
skin,  is  not  so  generally  known  or  attended  to  as  is  demanded 
by  the  interests  of  both  public  and  personal  hygiene.  The 
lungs  and  the  skin  are  both  of  them  engaged  in  the  same  offices, 
viz.,  1,  to  evolve  gaseous  and  animal  matters,  the  retention  of 
which  would  be  injurious  to  the  organism ;  and,  2,  to  intro- 
duce into  the  blood  the  vitalizing  element,  or  the  oxygen  of 
the  atmosphere ;  and  hence  both  organs,  the  pulmonary  and 
the  cutaneous,  require  a  supply  of  fresh  air.  Both  of  them 
require  also  the  additional  purifying  aid  of  water.  The  lungs 
receive  their  share  in  the  shape  of  ordinary  atmospheric  mois- 
ture, and  how  they  rejoice  in  this  is  seen  in  the  rosy  cheeks, 
implying  active  pulmonary  circulation  and  respiration,  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  moist  climates  of  England  and  Holland. 
The  skin  receives  its  share  more  commonly  in  the  shape 
of  water,  directly  applied  to  its  surface,  as  in  the  process 
of  ordinaiy  ablution,  and  of  bathing;  and  in  some  coun- 
tries, on  a  large  scale  by  vapor  baths.  Both  the  lungs  and 
the  skin  exact  as  a  condition  for  the  healthy  discharge  of  their 
functions,  that  they  shall  have  their  air-bath  for  transpiration, 
and  their  water-bath  either  as  simple  aqueous  fluid  or  as  vapor, 
to  deterge  the  respiratory  and  cutaneous  surfaces,  and  to 
enable  them  to  cast  off,  in  the  first  case,  mucus,  and  in  the 


165 


second,  the  perspirable  and  oily  matters.  Cleanliness,  in  its 
true  comprehensive  meaning,  cannot  be  carried  out  so  as  to 
meet  the  wants  of  the  animal  economy,  unless  we  attend  to 
these  requirements.  Our  senses  revolt  at  the  mere  offer  of  dirty 
water  for  drink ;  but  nature  displays  equal  repugnance  when 
dirty,  that  is,  impure  air  is  offered  for  breathing  ;  and  no  less 
injustice  is  done  to  the  lungs  by  the  inhalation  of  foul  air,  in 
which  are  floating,  at  the  same  time,  particles  of  fine  dust,  rising 
from  different  substances  in  manufacture,  than  would  be  to  the 
skin,  if  first,  ditch  or  gutter-water,  and  then  sand  and  dirt,  were 
sprinkled  over  it.  The  very  idea  of  swallowing  or  even  tast- 
ing the  fluid  substances  ejected  as  excreta,  or  thrown  off  by 
disease,  from  the  body  of  another  person,  or  even  from  our  own, 
is  abhorrent  to  all ;  and  yet  how  few  scruple  about  receiving 
into  their  lungs,  by  respiration,  the  impure  exhalations  from 
the  lungs  of  everybody  in  the  same  room  with  themselves.  But 
they  are  doing  more  at  this  time  ;  they  are  inhaling  not  only 
the  foul  air  which  escapes  from  the  lungs,  but  also  that  and 
the  kindred  cutaneous  emanations  of  all  those  present  on  such 
an  occasion. 

Public  Squares  and  Parks. — We  make  these  remarks  as 
introductory  to,  and  with  a  view  of  enforcing,  not  merely  the 
desirableness  on  the  score  of  pleasurable  bodily  sensations, 
but  also  the  necessity  on  that  of  health,  of  out-door  exercise 
in  a  fresh  and  pure  air,  and  of  regular  bathing  in  pure  water, 
whether  it  be  fresh  or  saline.  Attention  to  these  things  is  a 
duty  which  every  individual  owes  to  him  or  to  herself,  but 
unless  it  be  regarded  at  the  same  time  as  part  of  public  hy- 
giene, and  carried  into  effect  by  proper  sanitary  measures,  the 
inhabitants  of  cities  cannot  meet  the  requirements  of  the  case, 
and  must  suffer  if  they  are  not  aided  by  judicious  municipal 
legislation.  The  opportunities  afforded  for  ventilation  are 
availed  of  to  a  certain  and  too  often  to  a  very  limited  extent 
in  the  house  ;  tliey  are  more  effective  in  the  street ;  but  they 


166 

can  only  be  said  to  have  received  their  full,  or  in  a  measure 
their  satisfactory  development  in  public  gardens,  squares,  and 
parks,  in  which  the  delicate  and  the  valetudinarian  adults 
more  especially,  and  all  those  of  tender  age,  may  find  com- 
pensation for  their  inability  to  visit  the  suburban  districts, 
to  breathe  fresh  air,  and  to  been  livened  by  the  sight  of  herb- 
age, flowers,  and  trees,  in  their  habitual  and  ever-pleas- 
ing livery.  These  advantages  are  all  easily  attained  in  the 
spots  of  the  kind  just  designated,  which  on  this  account  can 
never  be  too  highly  prized,  nor  too  greatly  multiplied.  But 
there  is  yet  another  and  a  large  class,  namely,  the  artisans 
and  mechanics,  whose  engagements  are  such  as  to  keep  them 
within  the  narrowest  city  limits,  and  who,  fatigued  and  jaded 
with  their  prolonged  toil,  are  too  often  prompted  to  fly  for 
present  excitement  and  relief  to  the  drinking-shop,  or  tavern, 
in  place  of  drawing  on  the  stimulants  which  nature  affords  in 
the  cordial  of  a  full  measure  of  oxygen  of  the  pure  air  of  these 
open  and  ornamented  places.  Here  they  would  experience,  in 
addition,  the  grateful  excitement  of  the  senses  in  admiring 
the  grass-plots,  and  the  rich  parterres,  with  their  shrubs  and 
flowers,  while  seated  under  the  shade  of  the  spreading  trees, 
and  refreshed  by  listening  to  the  falling  water  of  a  fountain, 
while  watching  at  the  same  time  its  feathery  spray.  It  is 
in  such  places  that  town  rivals  the  country,  and  that  nature 
and  art  join  together  to  promote  the  public  health,  and  incite  to 
innocent  gayety  and  enjoyment. 

Gymnasia  and  Museums. — But  something  more  is  re- 
quired for  the  youth,  and  the  industrious  mechanics  and  work- 
ing men  generally,  of  a  city,  than  space  for  walking  for 
themselves  and  their  families,  important  as  this  confessedly 
is.  Grounds  ought  to  be  set  apart  for  gymnastic  exercises 
and  various  manly  sports,  under  the  supervision  of  competent 
instructors. 


167 


Connected  with  these^  grounds  there  might  be  instituted 
museums  of  natural  history,  models  of  machinery,  and  even 
specimens  of  the  fine  arts  ;  thus  creating  in  the  minds  of  all 
who  would  visit  these  places,  associations  of  the  most  pleasing 
and  instructive  kind.  If  we  suggest  these  things  as  measures 
of  health,  others  might  strengthen  our  suggestion  by  urging 
them  as  an  affair  of  morals. 

Until  within  the  last  few  years,  it  was  thought  that  there 
was  something  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  disposition  and  character 
which  unfitted  the  people  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States  for  a  due  appreciation  of  the  benefits  and  pleasures  of 
public  walks  and  gardens,  and  of  museums  and  galleries  of 
art ;  and  that  if  these  places  were  thrown  open  to  the  public, 
they  would  be  injured,  if  not  destroyed,  by  the  Vandal  multi- 
tude. Trials  made  on  a  large  scale,  as  for  instance  by  throw- 
ing open  the  British  Museum,  in  London,  and  the  grounds 
and  the  palace,  including  the  collection  of  paintings,  at  Hamp- 
ton Court,  to  the  public  of  all  classes,  have  dispelled  this 
notion.  The  following  carries  with  it  instruction.  On  the 
occasion  of  a  projected  chartist  meeting  at  Manchester,  which 
greatly  alarmed  the  municipal  magistrates,  Sir  Charles  Shaw, 
the  Chief  Commissioner  of  Police,  induced  the  Mayor  to  get 
the  Botanical  Garden,  the  Zoological  Garden,  and  the  Museum 
of  that  town  thrown  open  to  the  public.  The  effect  was,  that 
not  more  than  200  or  300  attended  the  .political  meeting, 
which  entirely  failed  ;  and  scarcely  a  dollar's  worth  of  damage 
was  done  to  the  gardens  or  to  the  public  institutions  by  the 
working  people,  who  were  pleased  with  their  share  of  the 
entertainment.  A  farther  effect  produced,  was,  that  the 
charges  before  the  police,  of  drunkenness  and  riot,  were  on 
that  day  less  than  the  average  of  that  on  ordinary  days. 

Ablution  and  Bathing. — As  relates  to  cutaneous  purifi- 
cation^ personal  cleanliness  ought  to  be  regarded  in  the  light 


168 

of  a  sanitary  measure  of  the  first  importance,  and  to  come 
within  the  category  of  the  cleansing  of  streets  and  houses.  It 
does  not  engage  attention  to  the  extent  that  its  importance 
demands,  whether  we  look  to  health  or  comfort.  The  neglect 
of  cleanliness  by  the  colliers  of  Lancashire,  as  recorded  by 
Mr.  Chadwick  in  his  Report,  is,  we  fear,  not  without  a 
parallel,  either  among  the  same  classes  elsewhere,  or  among 
many  others  in  better  circumstances,  but  whose  skin  does  not 
tell  the  tale  to  the  eye  so  forcibly  as  if  it  were  blackened  by 
coal-dust.  Neither  the  men  nor  the  girls  employed  in  the 
coal-mines  ever  washed  their  bodies.  "  Their  legs  and  their 
bodies,  said  a  witness,  are  as  black  as  your  hat."  One 
laborer  remembered  t\isit  a  particular  event  took  place,  because 
it  was  then  he  washed  his  feet.  The  effects  of  these  habits 
are  seen  in  the  work-house,  in  almost  every  pauper  admitted. 
When  it  is  necessary  to  wash  them  on  their  admission,  they 
usually  manifest  an  extreme  reluctance  to  the  process.  Their 
common  feeling  was  expressed  by  one  of  them,  when  he  de- 
clared it  "  e.qual  to  robbing  him  of  a  great-coat  which  he  had 
had  for  many  years." 

How  many  of  those  who  walk  our  streets,  in  gay  attire  too, 
wear  a  garment  of  this  kind  over  their  skins  ?  If  the  exter- 
nal surface  of  insects  be  covered  with  oil,  so  as  to  stop  up 
their  spiracles,  and  the  skin  of  animals  of  a  higher  grade  be 
covered  by  a  layer  of  some  impermeable  substance,  death  re- 
sults. It  needs  little  physiological  knowledge  to  make  us 
aware  of  the  injury  done  to  the  functions  of  a  human  body, 
by  the  skin  being  coated  for  years  with  the  secreted,  oily,  and 
perspirable  matter.  The  lungs,  to  which  the  skin  is  auxilia- 
ry, must  be  overtasked  in  consequence,  and  rendered  more 
liable  to  disease.  That  distressing,  and  too  often  unmanage- 
able affection,  albuminuria,  or  Bright's  disease,  is  not  unfre- 
quently  traceable  to  the  imperfect  performance  of  the  func- 
tions of  the  skin. 


169 


"  It  might  savor  of  caricature,"  says  Mr.  Martin,  one  of 
the  Commissioners  on  the  Health  of  Towns,  &c.,  "  were  it 
asserted  that  in  regard  to  the  laboring  poor,  it  is  only  when 
the  infant  enters  upon  breathing  existence,  and  when  the  man 
has  ceased  to  breathe,  at  the  minute  of  birth,  and  at  the  hour 
of  death,  that  he  is  really  washed ;  yet  such  a  statement 
would  not  be  so  far  removed  from  the  truth  as  it  may  at  first 
appear.  To  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  and  from  dawn  to 
the  term  of  life,  the  bath,  as  an  article  of  comfort,  luxury, 
and  health,  is  hardly  known,  even  in  name.  In  the  chief 
cities  of  the  United  States  a  better,  and  in  some  of  them  an 
abundant  supply  of  water,  allows  of  the  inhabitants  having 
bath-rooms  in  their  houses,  for  the  purpose  of  cold-bathing ; 
and  within  these  few  years  past,  the  increase  of  kitchen  ranges 
and  boilers  attached,  allows  of  the  use  of  a  warm-bath.  But 
the  multitude,  the  masses  of  our  population,  both  in  town  and 
country,  are  still  wanting  in  these  means  of  promoting  health 
and  enjoyment ;  and  we  have  ample  cause  for  imitating,  by 
our  own  municipal  governments,  those  in  England,  which, 
aided  by  the  benevolence  of  individuals,  have  set  about 
the  erection  of  public  baths.  These,  if  not  actually  allowed 
to  be  used  by  all  applicants  gratuitously,  are  accessible  on 
the  payment  of  a  very  small  sum. 

As  yet,  the  people  of  Christendom  are  behind  the  ancients, 
particularly  the  Romans,  and  even  the  semi-civilized  inhabit- 
ants of  different  countries  at  the  present  time,  in  the  general 
resort  to  the  bath,  and  the  readiness  of  access  to  this  comfort 
and  solace  by  the  people  at  large.  Your  reporter  would  ven- 
ture to  refer  to  a  work  of  his  (on  Baths,  &c.),  for  a  variety  of 
details  on  the  subject  of  bathing,  as  a  part  of  public  hygiene. 
Warm  as  well  as  cold  water  should  be  introduced  into  all 
bath-houses,  both  for  the  purpose  of  more  complete  ablution  and 
detersion  of  the  skin  of  all  adhering  impurities,  and  on  account 
of  the  differences  in  individual  sensibility  and  vigor  of  frame, 


170 

either  constant  or  connected  with  temporary  indisposition  and 
weakness,  short  of  actual  disease.  Warm  baths  might  be  sup- 
plied to  the  working-classes,  Mr.  Hawkesby  thinks,  at  the 
low  rate  of  about  six  cents  each,  if  taken  by  200  or  300  daily. 
By  Sir  Henry  Dunkerfield's  Act,  the  Parliamentary  standard 
charge,  for  a  warm-bath,  is  fixed  at  two  pence  (four  cents), 
and  when  the  bathers  are  in  reasonable  numbers,  this  sum  is 
represented  to  be  quite  sufficient  to  give  a  profit  beyond  ex- 
penses. Dr.  Reid,  in  his  report  to  the  Commissioners,  in 
which  he  describes  the  means  of  ventilating  different  kinds  of 
buildings,  mentions  the  advantage  of  a  limited  supply  of  water 
being  procured,  "  during  the  progress  of  the  steam-bath,  ren- 
dering cleansing,  and  the  use  of  the  flesh-brush,  much  more 
convenient  than  in  the  ordinary  water  or  vapor-baths." 

It  has  been  calculated  that  the  waste-water  of  a  steam- 
engine  of  500  horse-power  would,  at  an  average  temperature 
of  70  to  75  deg.  K,  suffice  to  bathe  26,000  persons.  A  new 
source  of  an  abundant  supply  of  water,  of  a  somewhat  elevated 
temperature,  adapted  to  personal  and  domestic  wants,  has 
been  opened  of  late  years  in  Artesian  wells.  The  most  re- 
markable of  these  is  the  one  at  Grenelle,  near  Paris,  which, 
from  a  depth  of  nearly  2000  feet,  sends  up  a  volume  of  water 
equal  to  132,000  gallons  every  twenty-four  hours,  at  a  tem- 
perature of  82  deg.  F.  Its  softness  and  temperature  adapt  it 
admirably  to  the  purposes  of  a  bath  and  of  washing  clothes, 
for  both  of  which  it  is  largely  used. 

Public  Wash-houses. — One  of  the  marked  improvements 
in  public  hygiene  of  late  years,  and  which  bears  evidence  that 
the  spirit  of  philanthropy  is  abroad  and  active,  is  the  establish- 
ment of  Public  Wash-houses,  to  which  women  of  the  poorer 
classes  can  go,  and  have  the  use  of  rooms,  and  all  the  appliances 
for  washing  and  drying  their  clothes  and  those  of  their  families, 
on  the  payment  of  a  very  small  sum.  The  trials  so  far,  made 


171 


in  England  and  different  cities  of  this  country,  have  been 
quite  successful,  and  promotive  of  much  good  and  comfort  to 
the  parties  for  whom  these  houses  are  opened.  Incidental 
but  very  decided  benefit  to  the  women  who  make  use  of  the 
conveniences  thus  offered,  is  enjoyed  in  the  avoidance  of  the 
dirt  and  litter,  and  confusion  and  disturbance  to  the  whole 
family,  on  a  washing  day,  in  their  own  small  and  confined 
rooms. 

An  improvement,  or  rather  an  exceedingly  useful  addition, 
has  been  made  to  the  original  plan,  by  the  procuring  of  large, 
airy  rooms  in  which  the  infant  children  of  the  wash-women 
who  come  to  wash  their  clothes,  stay,  and  are  watched  and 
nursed  by  a  person  employed  for  the  purpose.  And  yet  a 
step  farther  has  been  taken  in  the  way  of  present  as  well  as 
future  good  to  these  juveniles.  It  is  teaching  them  the  simple 
elements  of  learning  and  morality. 

NUISANCES. — A  few  words  may  be  said  on  the  present  occa- 
sion in  regard  to  nuisances,  a  term  which  in  the  minds  of 
many  has  an  entirely  too  limited  meaning  for  the  cause  of  pub- 
lic health,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  more  sensi- 
tive and  exacting  would  extend  the  list  to  an  almost  indefinite 
extent.  Under  the  general  head  of  Nuisances  are  included 
special  obstructions  to  the  public  health,  such  as  accumula- 
tions of  dung  and  offal,  pig-sties,  open  privies,  obstructed 
drains,  pools  of  stagnant  water,  noxious  smoke  and  other  mat- 
ters coming  from  manufactories,  and  especially  the  animal  re- 
fuse invariably  found  in  the  vicinity  of  slaughter-houses,  aU 
of  which  act  with  so  much  power  in  the  midst  of  a  dense  popu- 
lation. By  an  Act  of  Parliament,  passed  some  years  ago, 
aggrieved  parties  can,  by  an  easy  course,  procure  a  removal  of 
evils,  when  duly  specified.  The  Nuisance  Removal  and  Dis- 
ease Prevention  Act,  passed  in  1848,  with  the  Amended  Sta- 
tute enacted  the  following  year,  are  great  steps  in  the  way  of 
sanitary  reform.  They  constitute,  together  with  the  Public 


172 


Health  Act  and  the  Interment  Act,  a  good  beginning  in  a 
course  of  wise  sanitary  legislation,  which  has  already  done 
much  toward  an  amelioration  of  the  great  and  many  abuses  by 
which  the  public  health  in  England  had  suffered  so  much. 

French  sanitary  legislation  is  more  precise,  and  at  the  same 
time*  comprehensive,  on  the  subject  of  nuisances.  It  distrib- 
utes into  three  classes  all  establishments  which  are  adverse  to 
the  comfort,  health,  and  safety  of  the  inhabitants ;  and  it 
describes  in  what  manner  each  is  unhealthy  and  annoying. 

Establishments  of  the  first  class  cannot  be  allowed  in  the 
vicinity  of  private  dwellings,  and  their  erection  is  only  permit- 
ted by  a  decree  of  the  sovereign  council.  To  this  category  be- 
long the  manufacture  of.  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  and  nitric 
acids,  as  well  as  that  of  various  chemical  products,  melting 
establishments  of  fat  on  open  fires,  work-shops  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  taffety,  leather,  and  varnished  tissues,  also  of  knackers, 
tripe-men,  and  cat-gut  manufacturers,  and  of  those  in  which 
are  prepared  animal  black,  glue,  Prussian  blue,  blood-manure, 
aiselle  (a  kind  of  dye),  and  starch,  factories  of  fire-works,  luci- 
fer  matches,  and  fulminating  compounds.  The  reasons  ior 
placing  these  together,  as  the  most  dangerous  class,  are  vitia- 
tion of  the  air  by  the  disengagement  of  emanations  inimical  to 
health,  the  risk  of  fire,  and  the  intolerable  odors  which  they 
emit.  Hence,  if  allowed  at  all,  it  is  only  within  a  radius  of 
three  thousand  feet,  after  long  and  multiplied  formalities,  which 
want  of  time  prevents  us  from  introducing  in  this  place. 

The  second  class  of  establishments  of  the  manufacturing 
kind  include  those  the  removal  of  which  from  an  inhabited  dis- 
trict is  not  absolutely  necessary,  but  which  it  is  fit  should  only 
be  permitted  after  a  suitable  inquiry  to  show  that  they  are  not 
nuisances.  To  this  category  belong  lime  or  plaster  kilns, 
when  they  are  in  constant  operation,  high-pressure  steam- 
engines,  gas-works,  currieries,  tanneries,  hat  factories,  foun- 
dries, manufactories  of  sulphate  of  iron  and  zinc,  of  sulphate  of 


173 

soda  in  close  vessels,  phosphorus,  imitation  jewelry,  bitumin- 
ous matter,  chandleries  of  tallow  and  of  stearine,  and  work- 
shops for  the  scraping  and  cleaning  of  copper  vessels. 

None  of  these  can  be  called  actually  unhealthy  to  those  in 
their  vicinity,  but  many  of  them  are  disagreeable,  and  seri- 
ously annoy  others  by  their  smoke,  their  noise,  the  danger  of 
fire,  or  by  their  offensive  smell. 

The  third  class  comprises  all  those  establishments  which 
may  be  in  operation  in  the  vicinity  of  dwelling-houses  without 
inconvenience,  but  which  must  nevertheless  be  submitted  to 
the  inspection  of  the  Prefect  of  the  Department,  for  his  autho- 
rization. They  are,  lime  and  plaster  kilns,  used  not  more 
than  a  month  in  the  year,  brick-yards,  potteries,  and  tile 
works,  manufactories  of  gelatine  and  isinglass,  crucible  foun- 
dries, dye-works,  &c. 

There  is  nothing  absolute  in  this  classification,  inasmuch  as 
that  a  particular  manufactory,  the  processes  of  which  are  im- 
proved, may  pass  from  one  category  to  another. 

Considering  the  excessive  annoyances  from  the  smoke, 
especially  from  the  burning  of  bituminous  coal,  in  large  cities, 
such  as  London,  and  some  of  our  own  on  this  side  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, it  becomes  a  measure  of  the  first  importance,  as  a  question 
of  public  health,  connected  with  its  effects  on  the  lungs,  by  its 
being  constantly  breathed,  and  on  the  skin,  in  relation  to  per- 
sonal cleanliness,  and  to  the  interiors  of  houses,  on  the  score 
of  domestic  cleanliness,  to  discover  the  means  by  which  the 
evil  can  be  materially  abated,  if  not  entirely  neutralized.  Ex- 
periments with  more  or  less  success  have  been  made  with  this 
view,  the  precise  results  of  which,  or  their  relative  value,  need 
not  be  introduced  here.  Too  much  importance  has  been 
attached  to  the  mere  effect  of  lofty  chimneys  in  removing  to  a 
distance  and  diluting  the  heavy  smoke  and  noxious  fumes 
which  are  evolved  from  many  manufactories.  In  themselves 


174 


they  in  no  way  destroy  the  emanations  which  are  conveyed 
into  them ;  these  are  discharged  as  much  as  before  into  the 
external  atmosphere ;  and  experience  has  proved  that  even 
very  lofty  chimneys,  on  which  large  sums  have  been  expend- 
ed, do  not  necessarily  insure  that  amount  of  admixture  with 
the  common  air  which  is  essential  to  prevent  the  most  inju- 
rious consequences  of  their  deposit,  even  at  very  considerable 
distances.  The  extent  to  which  nauseous,  acrid,  and  other 
noxious  fumes  from  manufactories  often  destroy  the  atmo- 
sphere of  numerous  dwellings,  and  sometimes  of  whole  streets, 
is  abundantly  explained  in  the  reports  of  the  Commissioners. 

Slaughter-Houses. — These  nuisances,  of  the  worst  class, 
were  clung  to  in  England  and  elsewhere,  with  a  tenacity  such 
as  might  imply  a  thorough  conviction  of  the  use  of  them 
being  a  time-honored  privilege,  interwoven  with  the  dearest 
rights  of  the  people.  The  last  and  decisive  battle  of  old 
prejudices  against  the  clearest  evidences  of  hygiene,  was 
fought  in  the  matter  of  the  Smithfield  Market  and  its 
shambles,  in  the  very  heart  of  London.  We  cannot  introduce 
the  subject  better  than  by  giving  the  following  portion  of  Ab- 
stract of  Evidence  before  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House 
of  Commons  on  Smithfield  Market,  May,  1847. 

Dr.  Jordan  Roche  Lynch  had  lived  and  practised  for  the 
last  fifteen  years  in  the  neighborhood  of  Smithfield,  the 
sanitary  state  of  which  was  most  defective.  The  slaughter- 
houses have  a  most  injurious  influence  upon  the  district ; 
they  generate  fever,  and  render  the  most  simple  diseases  ma- 
lignant, and  shorten  the  duration  of  life.  In  Bear  alley,  a 
lane  running  from  Farringdon  street  to  the  old  wall  of  Lon- 
don, called  Breakneck  Steps,  there  is  a  slaughter-house 
behind  six  or  seven  houses,  which  are  inhabited  by  the  hum- 
blest classes  of  society.  The  stench  is  intolerable,  arising 
from  the  slaughtering  of  the  cattle,  and  the  removal  of  the 
fecal  matters,  the  guts,  the  blood,  and  the  skins  of  the  animals. 


175 

When  they  clean  the  guts,  the  matter  is  turned  out ;  some  of 
the  heavier  parts  of  the  manure  are  preserved  to  be  carted 
away,  but  a  great  deal  of  it  is  carried  into  the  sewers,  which 
have  gully-holes  ;  and  in  the  summer  months,  the  heat  acting 
upon  the  fecal  matter  causes  its  decomposition ;  and  carburet- 
ted  and  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  and  carbonic  acid  gas, 
all  of  which  are  fatal  to  animal  life,  are  disengaged,  and  rush 
out  of  the  gully-holes,  so  that  a  blind  man's  nose  will  enable 
him  to  avoid  approaching  these  outlets.  Whenever  he  goes 
into  places  or  houses  contiguous  to  the  slaughter-houses,  he 
is  compelled  to  hold  his  nose  all  the  time  he  is  there,  the 
stench  is  so  great.  Dr.  Lynch  has  patients  in  all  these 
houses.  They  are  never  free  from  the  effects  of  this  stench, 
and  when  the  people  there  are  dangerously  ill,  he  is  without 
the  hope,  by  any  exercise  of  skill,  of  restoring  them  to  health. 
He  invariably  makes  it  a  rule  to  entreat  them  to  conquer  their 
repugnance  to  go  into  the  Work-house,  in  order  that  they  may 
have  better  air ;  and  if  they  accede,  the  medicines  that  would 
have  failed  in  the  noxious  atmosphere  before,  restore  them,  in 
most  instances,  to  health. 

The  people  where  such  smells  are,  drink ;  it  is  a  kind  of 
instinct ;  they  fly  to  it ;  they  fancy  that  the  stimulus  resists 
the  noxious  agency  of  the  foul  air  they  are  breathing. 
Malaria,  such  as  is  generated  in  these  slaughter-houses,  is  a 
narcotic  poison;  it  oppresses  both  body  and  mind;  and 
under  the  influence  of  this  physical  and  mental  depression, 
they  instinctively  resort  to  the  gin-shop,  which  aggravates 
their  distresses,  by  extracting  from  them  the  means  *rf  living 
perhaps  better  than  they  do,  and  it  might  have  been  added, 
also,  by  the  addition,  in  this  way,  of  one  poison  to  another.* 
Mr.  Dunliill,  civil  engineer,  who  made  the  abstract  from 
which  we  have  been  borrowing,  relates  also,  that  in  Newgate 
and  Leadenhall  markets,  the  slaughtering  was  carried  on  in 

*  Journal  of  Public  Health,  vol.  i.,  p.  244. 


176 

cellars,  where  there  was  a  total  absence  of  natural  light,  ven- 
tilation, or  drainage  ;  the  blood  and  dung  being  sometimes 
allowed  to  accumulate  therein  for  months  together,  or  until 
the  pestiferous  effluvia  caused  sufficient  alarm  and  sensation  in 
the  neighborhood  to  originate  an  indictment.  The  water 
supply  was  utterly  inadequate,  and  was  obtained,  from  the 
most  impure  sources,  while  the  machinery  was  of  the  most 
primitive  and  imperfect  character.  In  Aldgate  (better  known 
as  Whitechapel)  Market,  the  open  kennels  and  water-tables 
of  the  wood-way  are  to  be  seen  almost  daily  streaming  to  over- 
flow with  blood  and  ordure.  Immense  quantities  of  skins, 
offal,  and  dung,  were  also  exposed  on  the  public  highway, 
where  thousands  of  pedestrians  were  continually  passing  to 
and  fro. 

We  have  spoken  of  these  nuisances  in  the  past  tense,  under 
a  belief  that  they  have  been  abated,  if  not  entirely  removed. 
Smithfield  Market  has  been  finally  closed. 

Some  of  the  witnesses  before  the  Commons  Committee, 
spoke  in  high  terms,  from  personal  observation,  of  the 
French  abattoirs,  which  form  a  striking  contrast  to  the  Eng- 
lish slaughter-houses.  Mr.  Dunhill,  on  this  point,  remarks : 
"  In  Paris,  the  influence  of  cleanliness,  supervision,  and  facili- 
ties for  performance  of  the  duties  of  the  slaughtermen,  was 
very  interesting  to  observe.  Their  demeanor  was  character- 
ized by  none  of  that  brutality,  apparent  relish  for  cruelty,  and 
indifference  to  the  dirt,  filth,  and  disgusting  scenes,  which 
those  of  our  own  country  witness  and  participate  in  every 
day  of  their  lives.  Not  the  least  important  feature  in  the 
establishment  of  outlying  abattoirs  is,  that  bone-boiling  and 
crushing,  skin-dressing,  glue,  gut,  horn,  and  manure-manufac- 
turing, with  numerous  other  noxious  crafts  in  connection  with 
the  offal  and  refuse  of  slaughter-houses,  highly  prejudicial  to 
the  public  health,  and  intolerable  nuisances  in  the  crowded 
districts,  where  they  are  now  carried  on,  would  very  soon 


177 

find  their  location  outside  the  town,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  depots  of  the  materiel  which  they  require." 

When  the  public  abattoirs  in  Paris  were  completed,  they 
were  handed  over  to  the  use  of  the  butchers,  and  all  private 
slaughter-houses  were  suppressed.  Two  indispensable  con- 
ditions have  been  laid  down  for  making  use  of  an  abattoir — 
first,  a  copious  supply  of  good  water ;  and  secondly,  com- 
plete arrangements  for  its  being  carried  away  after  having  been 
used  in  the  various  processes  of  slaughtering  the  animals,  and 
in  the  washing  and  manipulations  of  their  several  parts. 
Where  the  water  cannot  be  brought  by  hand,  it  must  be 
pumped  up  by  steam-engines.  It  has  been  computed  that  a 
single  abattoir  in  Paris  requires  about  45,000  gallons  of  water 
daily.  The  sewers  for  the  carrying  off  the  waste  and  impure 
water,  are  either  special,  and  open  directly  into  the  Seine,  or 
communicate  with  public  sewers,  which  have  a  uniform  fall 
towards  the  river.  Trials  were  made,  but  unsuccessfully,  of 
large  pits  filled  with  calcareous  stones,  for  the  reception  of  the 
waters  coming  from  an  abattoir,  and  also  of  open  drains  to 
convey  the  waters  to  the  Seine.  Finally,  an  absorbing 
Artesian  well,  570  feet  deep,  was  bored,  and  in  this  opening 
all  the  bloody  and  saline  water  of  the  abattoir  was  allowed  to 
flow.  The  absorption  went  on  at  a  uniform  rate,  and  without 
the  escape  of  a  single  drop  of  the  inflowing  water,  or  of  any 
odor,  either  inside  or  external  to  the  establishment. 

In  the  public  abattoirs,  a  supervision  can  be,  and  is  exer- 
cised over  the  health  of  the  cattle  that  are  brought  to  be 
slaughtered.  None  are  allowed  to  be  killed  in  them  which 
are  laboring  under  contagious  disease ;  nor  can  the  animals 
affected  with  other  diseases  be  slaughtered  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  inspectors  of  the  abattoir. 

Cow-Houses. — These  have  become  of  late  years  regular 
establishments  in  nearly  all  large  cities.  Though  not  directly 


178 

nor  necessarily  coming  under  the  head  of  nuisances,  yet  inci- 
dentally and  too  frequently  they  are  made  such.  The  sub- 
ject is  doubly  important — first,  as  it  relates  to  the  contamina- 
tion of  the  surrounding  air,  by  a  failure  to  remove  the  excre- 
mental  matters  from  the  stables,  and  to  keep  them  clean  ;  and 
secondly,  by  the  bad  milk  obtained  from  cows  pent  up  in 
stables  in  which  ventilation  is  not  attended  to.  Of  the  dele- 
terious food  given  to  these  animals  when  kept  in  stables  in 
a  city,  and  of  the  consequent  bad  health  and  diseases, 
especially  among  the  infantile  portion  of  the  inhabitants  of  a 
city,  we  have  already  spoken. 

Cow-keeping  did  not  elude  the  vigilance  of  the  French 
government.  The  regulations  which  exist  have  for  their 
object,  to  prevent  overcrowding  of  the  animals,  to  insure 
cleanliness,  and  a  sufficient  ventilation  of  the  stables.  It 
appears,  from  a  report  of  the  Metropolitan  Medical  Officers  of 
Health  on  London  cow-houses,  that  there  are  in  that  metropo- 
lis 846  of  these  establishments,  containing  11,818  cows.  The 
Committee,  in  conclusion,  offer  the  following  rules  for  the  regu- 
lation of  cow-houses : 

1.  Every  cow-house  shall   be   paved  with  flag-paving  or 
other  non-absorbent  material,  set  and  bedded  in  cement,  with 
a  proper  inclination  to  the  foot  of  the  stalls,  so  as  to  drain 
into  a  channel  leading,  by  a  fall  of  not  less  than  one  and  a  half 
inches,  or  ten  feet  in  a  trapped  gully. 

2.  Every  cow-house  will  be  provided  with  a  proper  trapped 
drain,  to  convey  fluid  matter  alone  into  the  sewers. 

3.  Every  cow-house  shall  be  furnished  with  an  adequate 
supply  of  water,  and  be  washed  thoroughly  at  least  once  a  day. 

4.  All  solid  manure  and  refuse  shall  be  carefully  swept  up 
twice  a  day,  be  kept  under  cover,  and  be  carted  away  every 
morning  by  seven  o'clock  from  Lady-day  to  ]\lichaelmas,  and 
by  eight  o'clock  from  Michaelmas  to  Lady-day. 


179 

5.  Every  cow-house  shall  be  kept  in  proper  condition,  and 
the  walls  be  lime-washed  at  least  four  times  a  year,  within 
fourteen  days  after  the  quarter. 

6.  Every  cow-house  shall  have  at  least  8  feet  by  4  feet  for 
each  cow  (when  the  cows  are  kept  in  separate  stalls),  or  of  8 
feet  by  7  feet  for  every  two  cows  (where  the  stalls  are  con- 
structed to  hold  pairs),  with  a  cubic  capacity,  in  either  case, 
of  at  least  1000  feet  to  each  cow;  shall  be  properly  lighted 
and  ventilated,  and  when  the  state  of  the  neighborhood  re- 
quires it,  shall  be  provided  with  tight  roofs  and  ventilating 
shafts,  so  as  to  convey  the  noxious  exhalations  above  the  level 
of  the  adjacent  houses. 

7.  Every  yard  in  which  a  cow-house  is  situated,  shall  be 
well  paved  with  stone,  or  other  impervious  material  (the  joints 
of  the  paving  to  be  run  with  grout),  with  such  a  slope  towards 
the  channels  and  trapped  gully,  as  to  permit  the  rapid  escape 
of  all  fluids  into  the  sewer,  and  shall  be  washed  at  least  once 
a  day. 

8.  The  grain-bins  and  receptacles  for  wash,  shall  be  kept 
properly  cleaned,  and  under  cover. 

9.  No  underground  cellar,  and  no  part  of  a  dwelling-house, 
shall  be  used  as  cow-sheds. 

Among  the  most  grievous  nuisances  to  which  many  neigh* 
borhoods  have  been  subjected  in  London  and  other  large 
towns,  is  burial-grounds  not  adequate  for  complete  sepulture. 
Indeed,  the  practice  of  intra-mural  interment,  that  is,  of  bu- 
rial of  the  dead  in  a  densely  populated  part  of  a  city,  must 
altogether  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  nuisance.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  enlarge  on  this  subject,  as  it  has  been  made  one 
of  S3parafe  investigation  by  your  reporter,  and  as  such  it  is 
now  oTered  to  the  Convention  as  the  completion  of  his  labors 
at  this  time. 


180 

INTERMENTS  IN  CITIES. 

There  yet  remains  one  important  branch  of  sanitary  reform, 
bearing  on  the  public  health,  to  which  attention  must  now 
be  directed.  It  is  interment  of  the  dead  in  city  limits. 
Turning  to  present  account  the  materials  which,  as  chairman 
of  a  committee  appointed  for  the  purpose  by  the  Philadelphia 
County  Medical  Society,  your  reporter  collected  and  presented 
to  that  body,  he  now  offers  this  document,  with  some  addi- 
tions, as  a  contribution,  on  the  part  of  the  Committee  on  the 
Internal  Hygiene  of  Cities,  to  the  Quarantine  and  Sanitary 
Convention. 

The  practice  of  intra-mural  interments,  or  of  those  within 
the  limits  of  a  city  or  town,  and  especially  in  those  parts  of  it 
in  which  people  are  congregated  in  numbers  for  fixed  habita- 
tion, is  always  dangerous  to  the  public  health.  It  has  caused, 
in  numerous  instances,  sudden  death ;  and  to  a  still  greater 
extent,  it  has  been  productive  either  of  fatal  disease,  or  of  a 
slow  decay  of  the  powers  of  life,  and  a  breaking  down  of  the 
constitution.  Enlightened  legislation,  from  the  earliest  times, 
has  endevored  to  prevent,  or  if  this  could  not  be  done,  to 
mitigate  the  evils  attendant  on  interments  in  cities  and  towns. 
Sometimes  a  religious  sanction  was  given  as  the  means  best 
adapted  to  attain  these  objects.  This  was  the  case  in  ancient 
Egypt,  in  which,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the 
annual  overflow  of  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  inhumation  could 
not  be  performed  in  a  proper  manner ;  and  hence  the  universal 
resort  to  embalming  the  dead,  which  came  to  be  regarded  both 
as  a  religious  and  a  hygienic  measure.  The  bodies  thus  pre- 
pared were  afterwards  deposited  in  grottos  and  in  chambers 
excavated  from  the  rocks,  the  walls  of  which  were  covered 
with  bas-reliefs  and  fresco  paintings,  descriptive  of  the  trades 
and  other  occupations  of  the  deceased.  The  Etruscans,  to 
whom  Rome  was  indebted  for  her  ritual,  her  %st  sanitary 
regulations,  and  the  construction  of  the  great  cloaque,  took 


181 

wise  precautions  against  the  dead  being  a  cause  of  disease  and 
of  terror  to  the  living,  by  arrangements  for  sepulture  on  such 
a  scale,  that  in  their  excavated  cities  of  the  dead,  the  traveler, 
at  the  present  time,  sees  sepulchral  chambers  so  ample  and 
decorated,-  as  to  persuade  him  that  he  is  actually  in  the  houses 
of  the  former  inhabitants 

In  the  primitive  ages  of  Greece,  the  inhabitants  buried  their 
dead  in  depositaries  prepared  for  the  purpose  in  their  own 
houses ;  and  vaults  in  temples  were  sometimes  used  in  this 
way.  But  with  the  progress  of  refinement  and  better  know- 
ledge, the  custom  afterwards  prevailed  of  carrying  the  dead 
without  the  cities,  and  interring  them  chiefly  by  the  highways. 
Lycurgus,  in  this,  as  in  most  of  his  institutions,  differed  from 
the  rest  of  the  Greek  lawgivers,  for  he  allowed  the  Lacedemo- 
nians not  only  to  bury  their  dead  in  the  city,  but  also  around 
their  temples.  His  object  was  to  remove  from  the  minds  of 
the  youth  the  fear  of  a  dead  body,  as  well  as  to  destroy  the 
superstitious  dread,  that  treading  on  a  grave  or  touching  a 
dead  body  would  defile.  Burning  the  bodies  of  the  dead 
became  general  among  the  Greeks,  from  whom  the  Romans 
afterwards  borrowed  the  custom. 

The  ancient  Jewish  cemeteries  were  commonly  situated 
beyond  the  limits  of  cities  and  villages.  It  was,  indeed,  the 
custom  among  other  nations  of  the  East  as  well  as  among 
the  Hebrews,  to  bury  out  of  the  city,  except  in  the  case  of 
kings  and  very  distinguished  men.  The  Hebrews  generally 
exhibited  a  preference  for  burying  in  gardens,  and  beneath 
shady  trees.  Large  subterranean  places  of  interment  were 
frequently  to  be  found  in  Palestine :  in  some  instances  they 
were  the  work  of  nature ;  in  some  they  were  merely  artificial 
excavations  of  the  earth,  and  in  others  were  cut  out  from 
rocks.  Numerous  sepulchres  of  this  kind  are  still  found  in 
Syria  and  also  in  Egypt.  Examples  of  these  subterranean 
quarries,  used  probably  for  the  same  purpose,  are  seen  at 


182 

Marsala  (the  ancient  Lilybseum)  in  Sicily,  Syracuse,  Salerno, 
Malta,  and,  in  the  north  at  Maestricht,  &c.;  and  perhaps, 
adds  Mr.  Burton,  *  the  celebrated  labyrinth  in  the  island 
of  Crete  was  formed  originally  by  excavations  of  the  kind. 
But  by  far  the  most  remarkable  are  those  discovered  of  late 
years  by  Laborde,  in  the  remains  of  the  large  and  wealthy 
city  of  Petra,  the  ancient  Edom.  They  are  of  incredible 
number  and  extent,  and  of  various  forms  and  dimensions. 
Some  of  them  are  houses  and  palaces  ;  but  the  greater  num- 
ber are  tombs  and  the  like  sepulchral  monuments.  They  not 
only  occupy  the  foot  of  the  entire  mountain  by  which  the 
valley  is  encompassed,  but  fhe  ravines  and  recesses  which 
branch  out  from  the  inclosed  area.  Ranged  in  regular  order, 
like  houses  of  a  well-built  city,  they  would  extend,  we  are 
told  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Olin,  who  visited  the  place,  not  less 
than  five  or  six  miles  in  length.  The  facades  of  many  of 
these  rock  tombs  are  decorated  with  great  architectural  and 
sculptural  beauty ;  the  more  striking  on  account  of  the  utter 
solitude  and  desolation  in  which  they  are  found. 

The  Carthaginians  buried  their  dead  at  some  distance  from 
the  city.  The  Necropolis  was  situated  beyond  the  suburbs, 
or  the  new  town,  Megara,  as  it  was  called,  which,  itself, 
was  made  up  chiefly  of  gardens  intersected  by  canals  for  the 
purpose  of  irrigation. 

In  the  brightest  or  the  republican  period  of  the  history  of 
Rome,  down  to  the  time  of  Sylla,  the  ordinary  method  of 
inhumation  was  practised  in  either  public  or  private  places. 
The  private  were  in  fields  and  gardens,  often  on  the  sides  of 
the  most  frequented  roads,  so  as  to  attract  the  notice  of  those 
that  passed,  and  it  may  have  been  also  to  remind  them  of 
their  mortality.  '  Hence  the  frequent  inscriptions  on  the 
tombs:  Stop,  Traveler;  Behold,  Traveler,  &c.  (SESTE 
VIATOR  ;  ARPICE  VIATOR),  seen  on  the  Appian,  the  Aurelian, 

*  Description  of  the  Antiquities  and  other  Curiosities  of  Rome 


183 

the  Flaminian,  and  other  roads.  Public  places,  such  as  the 
Campus  Esquilinus  outside  the  Esquiline  gate,  were  granted 
by  the  Senate  for  poor  people.  The  vast  accumulation  of 
the  dead  at  this  spot  rendered  the  neighborhood  so  unhealthy, 
that  Augustus,  with  the  consent  of  the  Senate,  gave  part  of  it 
to  his  favorite  Maecenas,  who  built  on  it  a  magnificent  house, 
and  surrounded  it  by  extensive  gardens.  The  Roman  law 
was  very  decided  in  its  prohibition  of  the  burial  of  the  dead 
within  the  city  ;  and  only  in  a  tew  exceptional  cases  was  any 
relaxation  permitted.  The  vestal  virgins  and  some  illustrious 
men  were  favored  in  this  way.  The  right  of  sepulture  for 
himself  within  the  poemarium,  or  open  space  left  both  within 
and  outside  of  the  walls,  was  decreed  to  Julius  Csesar,  as  an 
unusual  privilege.  By  the  emperors  the  original  law  was 
enforced  with  a  severity  which  was  rendered  the  more  neces- 
sary by  its  frequent  infractions  on  the  part  of  the  people,  who 
believed  the  worship  of  their  household  gods  and  the  manes  of 
their  ancestors  to  be  more  acceptable  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
dead.  Adrian  decreed  the  confiscation  of  the  land  on  which 
a  tomb  was  reared  within  the  city  limits,  and  the  exhumation 
of  the  body  which  had  been  buried. 

Burning  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  of  which  mention  is  made 
in  the  laws  of  Numa  and  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  did  not  be- 
come general  until  towards  the  end  of  the  republic.  Under 
the  emperors  the  custom  was  almost  universal,  but  it  after- 
wards gradually  declined  on  the  introduction  of  Christianity, 
and  fell  into  disuse  about  the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  The 
Romans  prohibited  both  the  burning  and  the  burial  of  the 
dead  in  the  city ;  in  the  former  case  in  order  that  houses 
might  not  be  endangered  by  the  frequency  of  funeral  fires, 
and  the  air  contaminated  by  the  stench  arising  from  them. 
The  Senate  House,  contiguous  to  the  Forum,  was  burned  by 
the  flames  extending  from  the  funeral  pile  of  Clodius. 

The  canons  of  the  Christian  Church,  in  imitation  of  the; 


184 

civil  law,  were  opposed  to  interments  in  cities,  and  also  in 
their  churches,  but  with  indifferent  success.     The  pernicious 
examples  set  by  the  Emperor  Constantine,  who,  in  pursuance 
of  his  expressed  wish,  was  buried  in  the  vestibule  of  the 
Basilica  ot   the  Holy  Apostles  at  Constantinople,   and  by 
Honorius,  who  found  a  sepulchre  in  the  portico  of  the  Church 
of  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome,  soon  had  numerous  imitators  among 
the  patricians  and  great  officers  of  the  state.     Vainly  did  suc- 
ceeding emperors  forbid  intra-mural  interments,  and  endeavor 
to  restrict  the  privilege  to  martyrs  alone.     Mistaken  piety, 
superstition,  and  the  vanity  of  the  rich  and  the  powerful,  pre- 
vailed over  imperial  edicts,  and  before  the  sixth  century  there 
were  not  only  numerous  interments  in  towns,  but  the  practice 
of  sepulture  in  churches  was  also  on  the  increase.    The  monks 
obtained  permission  to  be  buried  in  the  cloisters  of  their  con- 
vents, and  the  founders  of  churches  procured  for  themselves 
the  same  privilege.     Charlemagne,  toward  the  close  of"  the 
eighth  century,  seconding  the  wise  reform  of  these  abuses  be- 
gun by  Theodolphus,  bishop  of  Orleans,  prohibited  the  burial 
of  the  laity  in  churches,  and  eventually  of  all  persons  what- 
ever.    But  the  evil  was  not  arrested,  although  attempts  were 
made  with  this  view  by  numerous  great  councils  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church,  held  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  ninth  to  the  latter  part  of  the  sixteenth  century. 
Why  prohibitions,  enjoined  under  such   solemnity,  were  so 
long    and   so   extensively  disregarded,    may   be  understood 
for  the  reasons  already  assigned.     To  these  should  be  added 
another  and  constantly  nullifying  cause,  viz. :  the  cupidity  of 
the  clergy,  who  derived  large  fees  for  the  permission  which 
they  granted  to  bury  in  churches  or  contiguous  porticos  ;  and 
this  often  in  despite  of  positive  enactments  by  some  of  the 
councils  against  such  abuses.     Even  somewhat  less  than  a 
century  ago,  or  in  1765,  the  Parliament  of  Paris,  disregarding 
the  remonstrances  of  the  physicians,  who  had  called  the  atten- 
,  tion  of  the  government  to  the  danger  of  intra-mural  burials, 


185 

continued  the  permission  to  the  clergy  to  be  interred  in  the 
churches.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the  clerical  body, 
animated  by  a  more  enlightened  spirit,  gave  up  privileges 
which  were  productive  of  so  much  danger  to  the  public  health ; 
and  at  the  present  time  the  traveler  has  an  opportunity  of  ad- 
miring the  numerous  and  tastefully-arranged  suburban  and 
rural  cemeteries  in  France,  Italy,  and  Germany,  which  have 
replaced  the  crowded  and  often  closely  body-packed  and 
noisome  grave-yards  and  church-vaults  in  the  central  parts  of 
the  cities. 

The  practice  by  the  first  Christians  of  interring  their  dead 
in  the  city  of  Rome,  grew  out  of  the  peculiar  circumstances  in 
which  they  were  placed  as  a  persecuted  sect.  As  such  they 
were  compelled  to  hold  their  religious  meetings  and  to  celebrate 
their  rites  at  night,  and  in  retired  and  obscure  spots  ;  and  for 
this  purpose  no  places  were  better  fitted  than  the  subterranean 
caves  and  passages  known  ever  since  as  the  Catacombs.  There 
they  met  to  worship,  there  they  baptized  their  children  and 
neophytes ;  and  in  many  instances  they  deposited  their  dead  in 
excavations  made  in  the  sides  of  these  numerous^galleries  and 
avenues.  These  excavations  were  originally  begun,  and  must 
have  been  carried  on  to  a  great  extent  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
curing building  materials.  How  far  they  were  increased  by 
the  primitive  Christians  in  Rome,  is  a  matter  of  doubt.  The 
length  of  these  subterranean  streets,  in  different  directions,  and 
taken  altogether,  has  been  estimated  by  late  investigators  at 
about  nine  hundred  miles.  According  to  Father  Marchi,  the 
Roman  Catacombs  may  be  believed  to  contain  the  prodigious 
number  of  nearly  seven  millions  of  graves.  When  Christiani- 
ty came  to  be  tolerated  so  as  to  admit  of  freedom  of  worship 
in  the  open  day,  grants  of  pieces  of  ground  for  the  burial  of 
the  dead  were  made  by  converted  publicans  and  Roman  lead- 
ers, and  thus  were  begun  the  intra-mural  cemeteries,  with 
their  chapels,  which,  in  process  of  time,  became  parish 


186 


churches.  Some  of  the  cemeteries  of  the  rural  parishes  were 
after  a  time  comprised  in  the  limits  of  the  city  by  its  subse- 
quent extension.  The  history  of  the  quarries  in  the  tufa  hills, 
near  Naples,  is  similar  to  those  of  Rome :  both  of  them  sup- 
plied building  materials,  and  both  were  converted  into  cata- 
combs for  Christian  worship  and  burial.  In  the  first  centuries 
after  the  Christian  era,  so  far  was  interment  in  churches  from 
being  allowed,  that  the  presence  of  a  solitary  tomb  was  deem- 
ed to  be  sufficient  cause  for  preventing  the  erection  of  a  house 
of  worship.  The  cemeteries,  however,  were  soon  placed,  prob- 
ably by  the  terms  of  their  original  grants,  under  ecclesiastical 
jurisdiction,  and  continued  to  be  so  during  the  middle  ages, 
and  as  low  down  as  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It 
was  owing  to  this  circumstance  that  sanitary  reforms,  which 
seemed  to  be  of  a  purly  mundane  valve,  were  so  slow  in  being 
brought  about.  In  modern  times,  the  subject  of  the  control 
of  cemeteries  is  properly  viewed  as  a  municipal  affair,  and  as 
such  it  ought  to  be  studied  and  regulated  with  an  eye  solely 
to  the  public  good. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  enlarge  on  the  terrible  penalties  which 
result  from  a  neglect  of  the  natural  laws,  established  on  an 
unchangeable  basis,  by  the  Deity  himself,  nor  to  present  in 
detail  the  loss  of  life,  and  in  other  respects  wide-spread  injury 
to  the  public  health,  caused  by  an  infraction  of  these  laws  in 
the  long-continued  custom  of  interments  in  churches  and  in 
grave-yards  within  city  limits.  Medical  men  have  never 
ceased  to  protest  against  it,  and  to  point  out  the  evils,  some- 
times amounting  to  frightful  catastrophes,  from  its  continu- 
ance. In  some  instances  these  results  were  caused  by  the 
escape  of  pestiferous  air  from  recently-opened  vaults  in 
churches  ;  in  others  by  its  extrication  on  a  larger  scale,  and 
with  more  concentrated  virulence,  from  the  earth  of  old  bury- 
ing-grounds,  which  had  been  turned  up  with  a  view  to  their 
being  occupied  for  other  purposes.  The  efforts  of  Navier  to 


187 


enlighten  the  people  of  the  government  of  France  on  the  sub- 
ject were  so  far  successful,  that  a  royal  decree  was  issued  in 
the  following  year  (1776)  limiting  the  privilege  of  sepulture  in 
churches  to  some  of  the  higher  dignitaries  in  church  and  state. 
In  a  small  tract  written  a  few  years  (in  1768)  before  this  time, 
the  author  anticipated  many  of  the  views  and  suggestions  put 
forward  of  late  years  by  Mr.  Chadwick.  Vicq  d'Azyr  ten 
years  later,  yielding  to  the  solicitations  of  his  friend  D'Alem- 
bert,  snatched  time  from  his  profound  studies  and  experimental 
observations  in  anatomy  and  physiology,  to  translate  a  volume 
from  the  Italian  of  Scipio  Patioli,  on  the  subject  of  the  selec- 
tion of  proper  places  for  interment,  and  the  dangers  resulting 
from  a  neglect  of  the  observances  required  on  the  occasion 

Within  the  last  few  years  the  attention  of  the  people  of 
Great  Britain  has  been  thoroughly  aroused  to  the  enormities 
of  intramural  interments,  especially  as  witnessed  in  London, 
by  the  labors  of  Walker  and  Chadwick.  One  cannot  read 
without  feelings  of  sickening  and  disgust,  the  details  of  the 
state  of  some  of  the  grave-yards  of  the  metropolis;  and 
it  must  be  a  matter  of  surprise  to  every  reflecting  mind, 
that  such  scenes  as  kre  exhibited  in  the  pages  of  these 
writers  should  have  been  so  long  tolerated  by  any  people 
pretending  to  civilization,  or  possessed  of  ordinary  sen- 
sibility and  intelligence.  In  a  report  on  extramural 
sepulture  by  the  General  Board  of  Health,  it  was  stated 
that  "  there  could  not  be  less  than  two  hundred,  and  probably 
more,  burial-grounds  in  London,  situated  at  various  distances 
from  each  other,  and  each  differing  in  extent.  These  consti- 
tute two  hundred  centres  of  more  or  less  pollution,  each 
pouring  out  unceasingly,  day  and  night,  its  respective  contri- 
bution of  decaying  matter,  but  the  whole  together,  reckoning 
only  the  gas  from  decomposing  human  remains,  amounting,  as 
we  have  seen,  in  one  year,  to  upwards  of  two  million  and  a 
half  of  cubic  feet.  Whatever  portion  of  these  gases  is  not  ab- 


188 

sorbet  by  the  earth — earth  already  surcharged  with  the  accu- 
mulation of  centuries — and  whatever  part  does  not  mix  with 
and  contaminate  the  water,  must  be  emitted  into  the  atmo- 
sphere, bearing  with  them,  as  we  know,  putrescent  matters 
perceptible  to  sense.  That  these  emanations  do  act  injuriously 
on  the  health  of  the  people  resident  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
borhood of  the  places  from  which  they  issue,  appears  to  us,  by 
the  evidence  that  has  been  adduced,  to  be  indubitably  estab- 
lished. From  the  law  of  diffusion  of  gases,  they  must  be 
rapidly  spread  through  the  whole  of  the  atmosphere  that  sur- 
rounds the  metropolis,  and  though  they  thereby  become  di- 
luted, and  are  thus  rendered  proportionally  innocuous,  yet  that 
they  do  materially  contribute  to  the  contamination  of  the  air 
breathed  by  two  millions  of  the  people,  cannot,  we  think,  ad- 
mit of  reasonable  doubt.  We  submit,  therefore,  that  a  case 
is  made  out  for  the  total  prohibition  of  interments  within  the 
metropolis,  on  account  of  the  injury  resulting  from  the  practice 
to  public  health."  The  argument  of  the  General  Board  of 
Health  was  a  convincing  one,  and  it  led  to  the  Interment  Act 
of  1850,  the  passage  of  which  was  probably  facilitated  by  the 
favoring  influence  of  the  clergy  of  the  Established  Church, 
headed  by  the  Bishop  of  London.  Evidence  was  adduced  by 
the  Board  of  Health,  to  show  that  severe  complaints  in  the 
vicinity  of  some  of  the  church-yards,  almost  invariably  prove 
fatal ;  and  also,  that  the  pestilential  atmosphere  thus  formed 
became  a  fit  radius  for  the  poison  of  cholera  during  the  fatal 
year  of  1849. 

But  the  exhalations  into  the  atmosphere  are  not  the  only 
evils.  Mr.  George  A.  Walker  had  shown,  years  before, 
that  the  fluid  portions  of  the  decomposing  body  pass  into  the 
earth,  and  together  with  resulting  gases,  percolate  through  the 
walls  of  houses  and  drains,  and  find  their  way  into  gully-holes, 
and  thence  into  the  air  of  the  streets.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  legislative  action  was  quickened  (in  the  case  of  the  Inter-- 


189 

ment  Act)  by  the  annoyance  to  which  the  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons  were  exposed  from  a  stench  exhaling  from 
gully-holes  in  the  neighborhood.  M.  Gallo,  the  surveyor, 
declared  it'  to  be  produced  by  the  percolation  of  gases  and  ani- 
mal compounds  from  the  over-charged  church-yard  of  St. 
Margaret's,  immediately  opposite.  Mr.  Walker,  in  a  letter 
to  the  "  editor  of  the  Journal  of  Public  Health"  in  which 
he  had  stated  this  fact,  writes,  in  addition :  "I  have  fre- 
quently demonstrated  that  a  single  inspiration  of  the  pro- 
ducts of  human  putrefaction  has,  in  innumerable  individual 
and  collective  instances,  instantly  destroyed  life ;  in  others 
produced  lingering  consumption,  typhus,  scarlet  fever,  &c., 
&c.,  whilst  in  other  cases  ruined  health,  and  crippled  useful- 
ness have  been  the  clearly  traceable  consequences  resulting 
from  exposure  to  human  remains  in  a  state  of  decomposition." 
A  case  related  by  Mr.  Chadwick,  and  which  came  under  his 
own  observation,  may  be  related  here,  as  serving  to  point  the 
moral  of  a  longer  history  in  the  same  vein.  In  one  of  his 
walks  with  Professor  Owen,  he  met  with  a  butcher,  who,  in 
reply  to  some  inquiries  about  his  health,  stated  the  following 
particulars.  This  man  had  lived  a  long  time  in  Bear  yard, 
near  Clare  market,  where  he  was  exposed  to  two  deleterious 
influences — shambles  on  one  side  and  a  tripe-house  on  the 
other.  His  attention  to  his  own  impaired  health,  under  such 
circumstances,  was  quickened  by  observing  that  it  was  im- 
possible for  him  to  keep  birds,  of  which  he  was  extremely 
fond,  in  this  place.  "  You  may  hang  up  a  cage,"  said  he, 
"  in  any  window  of  the  corn-houses  round  Bear  yard,  and  not 
a  bird  will  live  out  the  week."  What  most  annoyed  them 
among  the  congregation  of  odors,  was  the  vapor  rising  from 
the  fat  in  the  process  of  preparing  the  tripe.  Some  time  be- 
fore this,  he  had  occupied  a  room  in  Portugal  street,  overlook- 
ing a  crowded  church-yard,  from  which  he  often  saw  a  dense 
vapor  rise,  that  had  a  very  offensive  odor.  The  butcher's 


190 

birds  died  there  in  "brief  time,  and  the  good  man  found  that 
he  could  only  preserve  new  purchases  by  removing  his  quar- 
ters to  Vere  street,  beyond  the  range  of  deleterious  emana- 
tions. 

Among  the  many  wise  laws  enacted  for  the  benefit  of  the 
people  by  the  government  of  the  republic,  after  the  subversion 
of  the  monarchy  in  France,  were  those  relating  to  interments. 
By  a  decree  of  the  23d  prairial,  in  the  year  XII.  of  the  Ke- 
public  (12th  June,  1804),  burial  in  churches,  temples,  syna- 
gogues, and  all  other  edifices  devoted  to  religious  worship,  or 
in  the  limits  of  any  city,  town,  or  village,  was  prohibited: 
and,  at  the  same  time,  provision  was  directed  to  be  made  for 
interring  the  dead  in  cemeteries  beyond  town  limits.  It 
was  decreed  in  1808,  under  the  empire,  that  there  should 
be  no  dwelling  built,  or  well  dug,  within  125  yards  of  the 
new  cemeleries.  In  Prussia,  the  distance  of  cemeteries  from 
towns  varies  from  100  to  1000  yards.  Some  English 
writers  recommend  an  interval  of  six  to  seven  hundred  yards 
between  the  two.  The  French  law  requires  that  five  years 
must  elapse  before  the  same  grave  can  be  opened  for  a  second 
interment,  so  that  time  may  be  allowed  for  the  decom- 
position of  the  body  first  inserted,  before  another  is  deposited 
in  its  place.  In  the  case  of  the  city  of  Marseilles,  with  a 
population  of  one  hundred  thousand  inhabitants,  and  an  an- 
nual mortality  of  three  thousand  persons,  it  has  been  estimated 
that  six  thousand  square  metres,  or  about  six  thousand  five 
hundred  square  yards  of  ground,  would  be  required  for  the 
purpose  of  interment  during  a  single  year ;  assuming  that  to 
each  body,  separately,  to  be  buried,  there  ought  to  be  allowed 
a  space  of  two  square  metres,  or  six  and  a  half  square  feet. 
But  as  five  years  must  elapse  between  successive  interments 
iu  the  same  spot,  the  entire  extent  of  ground  necessary  for 
the  burial  wants  of  a  population  of  one  hundred  thousand 
persons,  is  thirty  thousand  square  metres,  or  about  thirty-two 


191 


thousand  five  hundred  square  yards.  Various  estimates  have 
been  made  of  the  time  that  must  elapse  "before  the  entire  de- 
composition and  destruction  of  the  body,  leaving  only  the 
skeleton  or  the  bones  entire.  Some,  like  Gmelin,  make  the 
period  thirty  to  forty  years ;  others,  with  Walker,  at  seven 
years ;  Orfila,  again,  found,  by  actual  experiments  instituted 
for  the  purpose,  that  a  body,  even  when  inclosed  in  a  coffin, 
would,  after  interment,  be  reduced  to  the  state  of  a  skeleton 
in  a  period  varying  from  fourteen  to  eighteen  months.  Much, 
in  all  these  calculations,  must  depend  on  the  nature  of  the 
soil  in  which  interments  take  place.  The  legislation  on  the 
subject  of  the  time  that  should  intervene  between  the  deposit 
of  dead  bodies  in  the  same  grave  also  varies.  In  Hesse 
Darmstadt,  and  in  Prussia,  an  interval  of  thirty  years  is  ex- 
acted ;  in  the  city  of  Leipsic,  fifteen  years ;  in  Milan,  ten 
years ;  in  Munich,  the  capital  of  Bavaria,  nine  years.  The 
law  in  France,  as  above  stated,  may  be  considered  as  meet- 
ing the  exigencies  of  the  case.  Much  less  difference  occurs 
in  the  enactments  prescribing  the  depth  of  the  grave  opened 
for  the  reception  of  a  dead  body.  In  most  countries,  in- 
cluding Russia,  this  is  somewhat  more  than  six  feet ;  in 
Frankfort  on  the  Main,  it  is  four  feet  seven  inches  ;  and  in 
Lindon,  the  bishop  used  to  direct  a  depth  of  between  four  and 
five  feet. 

Danger  to  the  public  health  does  not  end  with  the  perma- 
nent closure  of  a  cemetery,  and  by  the  discontinuance  of 
burial  within  its  limits.  Years  must  elapse  before  the  soil 
can  be  broken  up  for  other  purposes,  such  as  the  construction 
of  houses  or  the  digging  out  of  trenches  or  drains.  It  has 
been  found  that  the  soil  of  a  burying-ground,  in  which  a  suc- 
cession of  bodies  in  large  numbers  has  been  laid,  becomes  in 
process  of  time,  unfitted  to  bring  about  the  putrefactive  changes 
in  bodies  of  more  recent  deposit,  so  as  to  render  them,  in  a 
great  degree,  innocuous.  The  soil,  under  such  circumstances, 


192 

becomes  saturated,  to  adopt  language  of  recent  introduction, 
as  applied  to  this  subject,  and  animalized  to  such  a  degree, 
that  it  cannot  be  disturbed  without  exhaling  poisonous  vapors 
and  gases,  which,  in  many  instances,  have  proved  suddenly 
fatal  to  those  who  inhaled  them.  Vicq  d'Azyr  tells  of  the 
breaking  up  of  the  soil  of  an  old  cemetery  in  the  heart  of  the 
town  of  Riom,  in  Auvergne,  with  a  design  to  public  improve- 
ment, which  was  followed,  soon  after,  by  an  endemic  disease, 
that  carried  off  a  large  number  of  the  inhabitants,  particularly 
of  the  poorer  classes ;  and  it  was  noticed  that  the  mortality 
was  greatest  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  cemetery.  A  similar 
calamity,  from  the  same  cause,  had  occurred  six  years  before, 
in  a  small  town  called  Ambert,  also  in  Auvergne.  The  spot 
on  which  had  stood  a  convent  of  the  Daughters  of  St.  Gene- 
vieve,  at  Paris,  was  eventually  appropriated  for  the  erection 
on  it  of  several  shops.  All  the  first  occupants  of  these  new 
shops,  and  especially  young  persons,  suffered  from  diseases 
nearly  of  the  same  kind — effects  attributed,  with  good  reason, 
to  the  exhalations  from  the  bodies  of  those  who  had  been  buried 
in  this  ground.  M.  Tardieu,  to  whose  work — a  Dictionary  of 
Public  Hygiene,*  &c. — we  are  indebted  for  the  preceding  de- 
tails, writes,  that  he  has  heard  many  of  the  old  inhabitants 
who  occupied  houses  near  the  church  of  St.  Severus,  in  Paris, 
say,  that  when  the  weather  was  mild  and  damp,  there  arose 
from  the  ground,  which  had  been  used  for  so  many  centuries 
as  a  place  of  interment,  a  dense  vapor,  of  such  a  sickening 
nature  as  to  force  them  to  close  the  windows,  in  order  to  escape 
serious  consequences.  Another  incident  to  the  same  purport, 
which  occurred  also  in  Paris,  is  worthy  of  notice.  After  the 
memorable  three  days  of  July,  1830,  great  difficulty  was  ex- 
perienced in  procuring  immediate  sepulture  for  those  who  had 
fallen  in  the  fight.  A  provisional  inhumation  of  a  certain 
number  was  directed  to  take  place  in  the  ground  of  the  Market 

*  Dictionnaire  d'Hygiene  Publique  et  de  Salubrite.      3  vols.    Paris,  1854. 


193 

of  the  Innocents,  the  spot  anciently  occupied  as  a  cemetery, 
in  long  use.  A  trench  was  accordingly  dug,  of  about  twelve 
feet  in  length,  by  seven  in  width,  and  ten  deep.  When  the 
pavement  was  taken  up,  and  a  layer  of  sand  of  about  six 
inches  in  depth  removed,  a  dark  and  greasy  earth  was  exposed 
to  view,  mixed  with  bones  and  remains  of  coffins,  which  it 
was  necessary  to  break  up.  The  exhalations  arising,  in  con- 
sequence, were  so  fetid  and  poisonous  as  to  suffocate  immedi- 
ately one  of  the  workmen. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  alarming  and  often  fatal  ef- 
fects following  the  disturbance  of  the  soil  of  old  cemeteries, 
the  first  republican  government  of  France  enacted  as  one  of 
the  clauses  of  the  law  respecting  interments,  of  which  we  have 
previously  spoken,  that  no  cemetery  after  its  final  closure, 
should  be  appropriated  to  any  other  purpose  short  of  a  period 
of  ten  years.  Grass  or  grain  might  be  sown  in  it,  and  trees 
planted,  but  no  deep  digging,  or  foundation  for  buildings 
should  be  begun,  ^ntil  permission  was  regularly  granted  for 
the  purpose.  Eeference  being  had  to  the  different  opinions 
held  respecting 'the  time  required  for  the  entire  decomposition 
of  a  body  after  its  inhumation,  it  may  be  readily  supposed 
that  there  would  be  corresponding  differences  in  the  legislative 
enactments  in  different  countries,  in  regard  to  the  period  that 
ought  to  elapse  before  a  cemetery,  finally  closed,  could  be  used 
for  any  other  than  its  original  purpose. 

If  we  appeal  to  chemistry  for  aid  in  detecting  the  deleterious 
gases  given  out  from  grave-yards,  and  more  particularly  from 
the  soil  after  it  has  been  dug,  as  in  opening  a  grave,  or  from 
vaults  in  which  the  dead  had  been  deposited,  we  learn  that 
the  gas  most  largely  extricated  is  carbonic  acid,  and  also 
carbonate  and  sulphydrate  of  ammonia.  Dr.  Reid  states, 
that  in  some  church-yards  he  has  "noticed  the  ground 
to  be  absolutely  saturated  with  carbonic  acid  gas,  so  that 

whenever  a   deep    grave   was   dug,    it   was   filled   in  some 
13 


194 

hours  afterwards  with  such  an  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
gas,  that  the. workmen  could  not  descend  without  danger. 
Deaths  have,  indeed,  occurred  in  some  church-yards  from  this 
cause."  But  chemistry  still  fails  to  enlighten  us  fully  respect- 
ing the  nature  or  composition  of  those  subtle  poisons  called 
miasms,  which  under  so  many  circumstances  generate  wide- 
spreading  and  fatal  disease.  The  vitiation  of  the  air  of  the 
hospitals,  dormitories  in  barracks,  and  in  crowded  assemblies, 
is,  to  a  certain  extent,  made  explicable  by  a  minute  increase 
of  carbonic  acid  in  these  places.  As  evincing  the  great  pene- 
trativeness  of  these  miasms,  Dr.  Reid  tells  us  that  he  has 
detected  their  escape  from  graves  more  than  twenty  feet  deep. 

The  extent  of  the  facts  now  collected  respecting  the  evils 
attending  the  practice  of  interments  in  cities  in  different  parts 
of  the  world,  and  the  almost  uniform  course  of  legislation,  both 
civil  and  canonical,  prohibiting  the  practice,  can  hardly  fail  of 
being  applicable  to  the  actual  condition  of  things  in  our  own 
country.  Looking  at  the  large  and  increasing  population  of 
our  chief  cities,  the  dearness  of  ground,  and  the  economy  of 
building-space,  now  so  carefully  studied,  every  question  relat- 
ing to  the  public  health  becomes  of  more  and  more  importance. 
All  preventable  causes  which  diminish  the  purity  of  the  air, 
or  vitiate  it  by  the  addition  of  deleterious  gases  and  miasms, 
ought  to  be,  -as  far  as  possible,  withdrawn.  The  increase  of 
rural  or  suburban  cemeteries  for  the  burial  of  the  dead,  has 
doubtless  had  a  share  in  abating  the  mischief  which  universal 
experience  shows  to  be  the  frequently  incidental,  if  not  con- 
stant effect  of  interments  in  its  more  crowded  districts.  It  is 
desirable  now  to  take  a  farther  and  final  step,  and  to  ask  that 
the  growing  partiality  for  extra-urban  cemeteries  should  be- 
come not  only  a  common,  but  a  universal  custom,  sustained 
and  enforced  by  formal  municipal  enactment. 

Several  years  since,  the  Sanitary  Committee  of  the  Board 
of  Health  of  Philadelphia,  made  a  report  on  this  subject, 


195 

and  offered  a  resolution,  that  in  the  opinion  of  the  Board, 
interments  of  the  dead  within  the  densely  populated  parts 
of  the  city  of  Philadelphia  and  adjoining  districts,  ought 
to  Tbe  discouraged.  A  carefully  drawn  bill,  accompanying 
the  resolutions  of  the  Board,  was  sent  to  Harrisburgh  for 
legislative  action,  but  without  effect.  The  period  which  has 
intervened  between  that  and  the  present  time  has  not  dimin- 
ished the  evils  complained  of,  nor  rendered  a  reform  less  ne- 
cessary ;  for  the  relief  afforded  by  the  voluntary  extra»urban 
interments  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  increase  of  population. 
The  following  language  of  the  Sanitary  Committee,  just 
referred  to,  is  as  full  of  warning  and  monition  to  other  cities 
as  it  is  to  the  people  and  the  municipal  authorities  of  Phila- 
delphia :  "  Your  Committee  are  convinced  that  the  grounds 
of  our  own  metropolis  are  even  now  sources  of  danger  to  the 
health  of  our  citizens,  and  that  every  year  the  danger  result- 
ing from  these  must  augment.  Scattered  as  they  are  over 
every  neighborhood,  surrounded  by  a  dense  and  constantly- 
increasing  population,  and  many  of  them  already  compara- 
tively crowded  with  dead  bodies,  which  are  carelessly,  and  in 
many  instances  superficially  interred,  some  of  the  grounds, 
particularly  those  belonging  to  the  colored  congregations,  are, 
even  now,  decided  nuisances,  injurious  to  the  health  of  the 
neighborhood  in  which  they  are  located."  Dr.  Wilson  Jewell, 
who  has  given  much  attention  to  public  hygiene,  does 
not  hesitate  to  declare,  after  careful  personal  inspection  and 
inquiry,  that  there  is  not  a  burial-ground  in  the  thickly 
populated  parts  of  Philadelphia,  which  has  been  in  use 
during  a  period  of  fifteen  to  twenty  years,  which  does  not 
contain  twice  the  number  of  bodies  that  the  ground  is  capa- 
ble of  allowing  to  be  decomposed  ;  in  other  words,  that  it  has 
passed  its  point  of  saturation.  In  some  cemeteries  in  this 
city,  it  is  no  common  thing  to  deposit  three,  tour,  and  even 
five,  bodies  in  one  grave,  until  their  decomposing  remains 
reach  within  eighteen  inches,  and  even  a  foot,  of  the  surface. 


196 

There  are  grave-yards  in  the  city,  of  modern  date,  which  al- 
ready show  marks  of  being  crowded  with  the  dead ;  and  al- 
though when  first  opened,  they  were  on  the  borders  of  the 
city,  and  almost  rural,  they  are  now  surrounded -by  streets, 
regularly  built,  which,  ere  many  years  have  passed,  will  be- 
come densely  inhabited.  One  of  the  cemeteries  thus  situated, 
and  the  first  we  believe  laid  out  as  a  private  speculation,  a 
little  more  than  thirty  years  ago,  has  received  during  this 
period,  as  Dr.  Jewell  was  informed,  upwards  of  11,000 
bodies.  It  occupies  a  space  equal  to  one  of  our  Philadelphia 
squares.  Mr.  White,  some  years  ago  City  Inspector  of  New 
York,  in  his  report  for  1850,  speaks  pointedly  of  the  nui- 
sances of  many  of  the  grave-yards  of  that  city.  He  had  some  of 
them  closed  during  the  prevalence  of  the  Cholera  in  1849. 
Under  such  circumstances,  a  sudden  addition  to  'the  number 
of  interments  in  these  places,  as  in  times  of  epidemic  diseases, 
would  not  be  without  danger,  and  might  give  rise  to  catas- 
trophes on  a  large  scale,  analogous  to  those  which  occurred  in 
foreign  lands,  and  some  of  which  have  been  recorded  in  the 
present  report. 

Not  having  been  required  to  invesigate  the  whole  subject 
of  interments,  we  do  not  deem  it  necessary  to  specify  the  kinds 
of  soil  most  favorable  for  the  purpose  of  accelerating  the  desired 
changes  in  the  decomposition  of  the  body  buried,  nor  have 
we  inquired  into  the  sanitary  influence  of  plantations  of  trees 
in  cemeteries,  with  a  view  to  the  purification  of  the  air  of  these 
spots.  We  must  not  omit,  however,  referring  to  a  plan  re- 
cently suggested,  and  in  some  places  carried  into  effect,  in 
England.  It  is,  to  surround  the  bodies  of  the  dead,  before 
they  are  finally  inclosed,  with  a  layer  some  four  inches  thick 
of  finely  powdered  wood  or  peat  charcoal.  By  this  means  the 
decay  of  the  animal  textures  would  go  on  rapidly,  and  without 
giving  rise  to  dangerous  exhalations.  In  the  burial  of  the 
poor  this  plan  merits  a  favorable  consideration,  and  it  must  in- 


,197 


^  deed  commend  itself  as  worthy  of  adoption  by  all  classes. 
The  experiments  of  Dr.  Stenhouse  place  the  subject  of  the 
operation  of  vegetable  charcoal  on  dead  bodies  in  a  new  and 
instructive  light,  by  showing,  contrary  to  popular  belief,  that, 
although  a  deodorizing  and  disinfecting  agent,  it  is  not  an  anti- 
septic proper,  which  gives  stability  to  organic  matter,  and  pre- 
vents its  decomposition.  Charcoal,  and,  in  less  degree,  clay, 
produce  a  species  of  slow  combustion,  by  which  the  miasms 
are  gradually  consumed. 

Without  being  called  upon  to  look  at  the  subject  of  intra- 
mural interments  under  its  purely  moral  and  religious  aspects, 
we  are  nevertheless  free  to  allude  to  the  depressing,  and  in 
such  times  morbid  influence,  exerted  on  the  community  by  its 
being  compelled  to  witness  the  frequent,  and  in  visitations  of 
certain  fearful  epidemics,  the  almost  continual  succession  of 
funeral  processions.  This  is  a  matter  of  public  health,  in  dis- 
cussing which,  medical  testimony  cannot  be  overlooked. 
Were  it  necessary,  clerical  experience  could  also  be  invoked  in 
favor  of  suburban  burials  in  preference  to  those  in  the  city, 
whether  regard  be  had  to  the  desirableness  of  the  uninterrupt- 
ed solemnities  of  the  burial  service,  the  avoidance  of  whatever 
would  grate  on  the  already  harrowed  feelings  of  attending 
relatives  and  friends,  and  the  preserving  unbroken  the  associa- 
tions of  an  elevated  and  religious  character,  with  the  sight  of 
the  memorials  to  the  dead  and  of  the  spot  where  their  bodies 
rest.  *  *  *  * 

There  are  yet  other  matters  worthy  of  notice  which  might 
serve  to  show  still  further  the  importance  and  economy  of 
sanitary  measures  to  cities,  and  of  which  it  would  be 
desirable  to  treat.  A  topic  of  considerable  moment  in  all 
commercial  cities  is  the  structure  of  the  wharves,  so 
that  there  shall  be  nothing  in  the  materials  of  which 
they  are  made,  susceptible  of  decay  and  decomposition. 
So  also  of  quays  in  every  town  on  the  banks  of  a  river, 


198 


and  their  construction  so  as  to  narrow  the  channel  and  dimin-^ 
ish  the  exposed  surface  at  low  water  on  both  of  the  sides  of 
the  river.  One  measure  in  the  internal  hygiene  of  cities  ought  to 
be  a  careful  supervision  of  all  stables,  cow-houses,  and  pigger- 
ies, and  vigilance  in  the  removal  of  heaps  of  manure,  accumu- 
lated under  no  matter  what  excuse.  Ascending  the  scale  of 
the  duties  of  sanitary  supervision,  would  come  that  of  manu- 
factories and  of  work-shops,  which  may  be  termed  public,  by 
their  extent  and  the  number  of  persons  employed  ;  also  of  all 
buildings  in  which  people  assemble  in  numbers  at  stated 
times.  Minute  inquiries  are  made  into  the  structure  and  ar- 
rangement of  the  rooms,  and  the  number  and  plan  of  fire-places, 
furnaces,  and  stoves,  before  an  insurance  against  fire  can  be 
effected.  Why  then  should  there  be  any  hesitation  about  a 
similarly  careful  investigation  by  the  sanitary  authorities,  with 
a  view  to  insurance  against  preventable  diseases  among  the 
inmates  of  a  house  ? 

In  concluding  this  report,  its  author  must  express  his  re- 
gret at  not  having  had  the  time  to  treat  in  a  rigidly  methodi- 
cal manner  the  various  topics  which  have  come  under  notice. 
He  submits,  however,  that,  while  adhering  with  some  close- 
ness to  the  terms  of  his  instructions,  he  has  made  out  a  case 
showing  the  paramount  necessity  for  a  methodical  and  liberal, 
yet  prudent,  system  of  sanitary  legislation,  and  the  wisdom  of 
adopting  such  a  code  as  the  Metropolitan  Sanitary  one,  which 
will  be  presented  to  the  Convention  by  one  of  our  Committee. 
The  time,  we  may  hope,  is  not  remote  when  the  writer  on  sani- 
tary subjects,  especially  if  he  desires  exactness  of  detail,  and 
comparisons  and  results  of  an  authentic  kind,  set  forth  nume- 
rically, will  not  be  obliged,  as  he  now  is,  to  procure  most  of 
his  arguments  and  enforcements  of  reform  from  abroad,  owing 
to  the  deficiency  of  statistical  knowledge  and  the  underrating  its 
value  here  at  home,  so  that  he  is  deprived  of  the  requisite  data 
either  to  show  with  accuracy  the  extent  of  existing  evils,  or 


;       199 

• 

to  point  out  the  means  for  their  removal.  One  measure  of  the 
highest  importance,  and  without  which  nothing  trustworthy 
can  be  learned  of  vital  statistics,  direct  or  comparative,  is  a 
system  of  births,  deaths,  and  marriages,  regularly  carried  out 
in  every  State  of  the  Union. 


D     R     ^.     F     T 


OP     A 

SANITARY   CODE   FOR   CITIES, 

(Reported  to  the  Committee  on  Internal  Hygiene.) 

BY  HENRY  G.  CLARK,  M.D.,  OF  BOSTON, 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

PUBLIC  HEALTH  ACT,     .........  205 

SANITARY  CODE  FOR  CITIES, 207 

Sanitary  Survey, ,   '     209 

Sewerage,       .                  .         .         .         .         .         .         .  211 

Cleansing,      .         ....        .         .        '.v  -    •   .         .         .  215 

Slaughter-Houses, • '  218 

Markets,         .         .         . 218 

Dram-Shops  and  Drinking-Houses,            .         .         .         .  221 

Lodging-Houses,    .         .    '     .         .         .         ...  221 

Cellars,        *v         .        •.         .         .         .         .         .         .  -      222 

New  Streets  and  Houses,         ....         .         .  223 

Supply  of  Water,    .         .     •     ,'        ..         .         .'        .         .  224 

Ventilation,             .      - \  225 

Pleasure-Grounds,            .         .         .         .         .         .         .  226 

Epidemic  and  Contagious  Diseases,           ..         .         .         .  226 

Vaccination,            .        \         ,       '  .         .                  .*         .  227 

Interment  of  the  Dead, 227 

General  Provisions,         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  230 

APPENDIX, 233 


205 


DRAFT 

OF  AN  ACT  FOR  ESTABLISHING  GENERAL  AND  LOCAL  BOARDS 
OF  HEALTH,  AND  FOR  OTHER  SANITARY  PURPOSES.* 

AN    ACT,   in   addition   to   existing   Acts,  for   promoting   the 
Public  Health. 

WHEREAS  it  is  expedient  that  further  and  more  effectual 
provision  should  be  made  for  improving  the  sanitary  condition 
of  populous  places :  Be  it  therefore  enacted  by  the  Senate 
and  House  of  Representatives  in  General  Court  assembled, 
and  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  as  follows ;  that  is  to 
say: 

I.  This  act  may  be  cited  for  all  purposes  as  "  Tl^e  Public 
Health  Act,  1860." 

II.  The  Governor  of  the  Commonwealth,  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Council,  shall  appoint  five  discreet  and 
suitable  persons,  three  at  least  of  whom  shall  be  Doctors  of 
Medicine,  who,  together  with  the  Secretary  of  State  for  the 
time  being,  and  the  Governor,  ex-officiis,  shall  together  be 
and  constitute  a  Board,  to  be  called  "  The  General  Board 
of  Health;"  and  shall  have  and  execute  all  the  powers  and 
duties   necessary  for   superintending   and   promoting  the 
general  sanitary  affairs  of  the  State. 

III.  They  shall  hold  their  offices  for  five  years,  or  until 
others  are  appointed  in  their  place;    and  they  shall  be 
sworn  to  the  faithful  performance  of  their  duty. 

IV.  They  shall  meet  at  such  convenient  times  as  they 
deem  expedient,  and  their  necessary  official  expenses  shall 
be  paid  out  of  the  Treasury  of  the  State ;  but  they  shall 
receive  no  other  compensation  for  their  services. 

V.  They  shall  appoint  a  competent  person,  who  may  also 
be  the  Register-General,  to  be  the  Secretary  or  Actuary  of 

*  For  the  debate  on  this  Keport,  see  pp.  86,  et  seq.,  and  pp.  226,  et  seq.,  of 
the  Proceedings. 


206 

the  Board,  who  shall  receive  such  a  salary,  not  exceeding 

dollars  per  annum,  as  the 

Board  shall  determine.  They  shall  also  appoint,  if  need  be, 
a  competent  physician,  who  shall  be  styled  a  Medical 
Health  Officer,  and  another  competent  person  for  Surveyor, 
who  shall  be  removable  at  their  pleasure,  and  who  shall 
receive  such  fees  or  other  compensation  as  the  Board  may, 
from  time  to  time,  determine. 

They  may  also  appoint  and  employ  such  other  persons 
as  may  be  necessary  to  carry  into  effect  the  sanitary  laws 
of  the  State,  and  delegate  to  them  the  necessary  powers, 
subject  to  the  approval  of  the  local  Boards  of  Health,  here- 
inafter provided  for. 

VI.  They  shall  consider  and  decide  upon  sanitary  ques- 
tions submitted  to  them  by  the  State,  cities,  towns,  or 
local  Boards  of  Health. 

VII.  They  shall,  by  reports  or  otherwise,  diffuse  infor- 
mation to  the  inhabitants  of  the  State  on  sanitary  matters ; 
and  shall  aid,  by  regulations,  suggestions,  and  by  furnish- 
ing blanks,  &c.,  the  various  local  Boards  of  Health. 

VIII.  The  corporate  authorities  of  the  various  cities  and 
towns  of  this  Commonwealth  are  hereby  authorized  and  em- 
powered to  establish  local  Boards  of  Health,  and  to  enact 
and  enforce,  generally  and  severally,  such  laws,  ordinances, 
and  regulations,  as  they  may  deem  expedient  or  necessary 
for  promoting  the  sanitary  condition  of  the  said  cities  and 
towns,  and*  as  are  not  inconsistent  with  the  Constitution 
and  laws  of  the  State. 

IX.  And  the  said  authorities  are  also  authorized  to  dele- 
gate to  the  said  local  Boards  of  Health,  or  other  agents,  all 
the  powers  necessary  for  the  convenient  execution  of  said 
law^s,  ordinances,  and  regulations. 

X.  All  acts,  and  parts  of  acts,  incompatible  with  this 
act,  are  hereby  repealed. 


207 


DRAFT 

OF  AN  ORDINANCE  FOR  PROMOTING  THE    HEALTH   OF  TOWNS. 

SANITARY    CODE   FOR   CITIES. 

Whereas,  by  an  Act  of  the  Legislature,  in  the  year  1860,  en- 
titled "  The  Public  Health  Act"  this  Corporation  has  been 
duly  authorized  and  empowered  to  make  all  needful  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  preservation  of  the  health  of  its  inhabitants  : 

Be  it  therefore  ordained  by  the  Councils  of  the  Town  of- , 

and  by  authority  thereof,  as  follows,  to  wit : 

I.  This   Ordinance   shall   be   cited  for  all  purposes  as 
"  The  Sanitary  Code  for  Cities."    , 

II.  The  duty  of  executing  and  enforcing  the  provisions 
of  this  "  Code"  is  hereby  vested  in  a  Board  of  Health,  at 
least  one-third  of  the  members  of  which  shall  be  Doctors 
of  Medicine,  to  be  chosen  by  the  Councils,  or  in  such  other 
way  as  the   legal  voters   may  determine ;   and  they  are 
hereby  constituted  the  local  Board  of  Health,  with  all  the 
powers  and  privileges  usually  invested  in  Boards  of  Health, 
and  with  such  further  especial  powers  as  may  be  conferred 
by  the  provisions  of  this  Ordinance. 

III.  And  said  local  Board,  or  its  authorized  agents,  shall 
have   the  right  at  all  times  to  enter   into  or  upon  any 
premises  for  the  purposes  of  this  Ordinance,  and  also  to 
call  upon  any  of  the  officers  or  of  the  police,  to  aid  them 
in  the  execution  of  its  provisions. 

IV.  In  the  construction,  and  for  the   purposes  of  this 
Ordinance,  the  following  words  and  expressions  shall  have 
the  meanings  hereinafter  assigned  to  them  ;  that  is  to  say  : 

The  term  "person,"  and  words  applying  to  any  individ- 
ual, shall  apply  to,  and  include  corporations,  aggregate  or 
sole. 

The  term  "  owner"  shall  mean  the  person  for  the  time 
being  entitled  to  the  rent  of  the  land  or  premises  in  con- 


208 

nection  with  which  the  term  is  used,  wnether  on  his  own 
account,  or  as  trustee  or  agent  for  any  other  person. 

The  expression,  "  Improvement  Commissioners,"  shall 
mean  the  commissioners,  trustees,  or  other  persons,  in- 
trusted by  any  local  act  with  powers  of  cleansing,  paving, 
or  otherwise  improving  any  town. 

The  term  "  town "  shall  also  include  "cities,"  or  any 
other  municipal  corporation. 

The  term  "  land  "  shall  include  messuages,  buildings, 
lands,  and  hereditaments  of  every  tenure ;  also  rivers, 
streams,  wells,  and  waters  of  every  description ;  also  ease- 
ments of  any  description  in  respect  of  the  foregoing  par- 
ticulars. 

The  term  "  waste-pipe"  shall  mean  the  pipe  which  dis- 
charges the  waste-water  from  within  any  house  into  the 
drain. 

The  term  "  drain"  shall  mean  any  drain  of,  and  used  for 
the  drainage  of  one  building  only,  or  premises  within  the 
same  curtilage,  and  made  merely  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
municating therefrom  with  a  cess-pool  or  other  like  recep- 
tacle for  drainage,  or  with  a  sewer,  into  which  the  drain- 
age, of  two  or  more  buildings  or  premises,  occupied  by 
different  persons,  is  conveyed. 

The  term  "  sewer  "  shall  mean  and  include  sewers  and 
drains  of  every  description,  except  drains  to  which  the 
word  "  drain,"  interpreted  as  aforesaid,  applies. 

The  term,  "  slaughter-house,"  shall  mean  and  include 
the  buildings  and  places  commonly  called  slaughter-houses 
and  knackers'  yards,  and  any  building  or  place  used  for 
slaughtering  cattle,  horses,  or  animals  of  any  description. 

The  term  "  district "  shall  mean  the  entire  area,  places,  or 
parts  of  places,  comprised  within  the  limits  of  any  district 
to  which  this  "  Code,"  or  any  part  thereof,  shall  be  applied. 

The  term  "  street  "  shall  include  a  square,  circus,  cres- 


209 

cent,  terrace,  place,  row,  mews,  alley,  court,  passage,  or 
or  other  like  place  in  which  the  houses  are  continuous,  or 
separated  only  by  small  intervals  of  space. 

The  word  "  house  "  shall  include  schools,  factories,  and 
other  buildings,  in  which  more  than  twenty  persons  are 
assembled  at  one  time. 

SANITARY   SURVEY. 

V.  There  shall  be  made,  annually,  a  thorough  sanitary 
survey  of  the  town  or  district,  as  the  case  may  be ;  and  at 
any  other  time,  when  it  shall  appear  from  the  returns  to 
the  Registrar  that  the  number  of 'deaths  shall  exceed,  an- 
nually, that  of  twenty-five  to  a  thousand  of  the  population 
of  such  place. 

And  the  Board  of  Health  may,  if  in  their  discretion  they 
think  fit,  direct  the  Medical  Health  Officer  to  cause  public 
inquiry  to  be  made  as  to  the  following  matters  and  things, 
or  any  of  them ;  that  is  to  say  : 

As  to  the  sewerage,  drainage,  and  water-supply ; 

As  to  the  number  and  sanitary  condition  of  the  inhab- 
itants ; 

As  to  the  accumulation  of  filth  ; 

As  to  any  other  matter  of  which  the  Board  may  require 
to  be  informed. 

VI.  The  said  survey  shall  be  made  in  the  manner  follow- 
ing, to  wit : 

The  Medical  Health  Officer  shall  have  the  right  to  call 
upon  the  Chief  of  Police,  who  shall  detail  for  this  service  a 
sufficient  number  of  the  regular  patrol  force,  who  shall  act 
as  inspecting  health  officers.  But  during  an  epidemic  sea- 
son, or  when  .any  medical  facts  are  to  be  obtained,  the  in- 
spectors shall  be  Doctors  or  Students  of  Medicine. 

Upon  receiving  his  instructions,  each  officer  will  com- 
mence and  diligently  prosecute  his  inquiries  ;  carefully  no- 
14 


210 

ticing  the  state  of  the  streets,  lanes,  courts,  passages,  com- 
mon stairs,  houses,  rooms,  cellars,  yards,  or  vacant  lots  in 
his  assigned  district ;  reporting  in  detail,  and  in  writing,  all 
accumulations  of  filth;  all  cases  where  the  Waste-pipes, 
drains,  or  water-closets  are  foul  or  obstructed  ;  all  cases  of 
prevailing  sickness,  especially  where  there  is  great  over- 
crowding, or  unusual  destitution;  also  all  cases  of  dead 
bodies  found  in  single-living  rooms. 

The  reports  may  be  made  in  the  manner  of  the  blank 
forms  hereto  annexed.  (See  Appendix  A.) 

VII.  When  any  nuisance  or  other  source  of  disease  is 
discovered,  notice,  in  the  proper  form  (see  Appendix  B),  is 
to  be  served  upon  the  owners  or  occupants,  forthwith  to 
abate  the  same,  and  in  case  of  refusal  or  neglect  for  a 
period  of  hours,  the  Medical  Health  Officer  is  author- 

ized and  directed  to  cause  the  same  to  be  abated  or  re- 
moved in  the  most  summary  manner ;  and  he  is  hereby 
authorized  to  call  upon  the  Chief  of  Police,  the  Engineer, 
the  Registrar,  and  the  Superintendents  of  Health,  of 
Streets,  and  of  Drains,  to  aid  him  in  such  removal. 

The  expense  of  such  removals  or  abatements  of  nuis- 
ances (of  which  an  accurate  account  is  to  be  kept),  shall 
be  chargeable  to  the  owners  or  occupants  of  the  premises. 

These  measures  shall  be  so  continuously  pursued  as  to 
prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  any  reaccumulation  of  the 
causes  of  disease  sought  to  be  removed,  and  each  officer 
shall  be  held  strictly  responsible  for  the  sanitary  condition 
of  his  assigned  district. 

All  persons,  acting  under  and  by  the  authority  of  this 
order,  may  be  authorized  to  enter  upon  and  into  any  prem- 
ises which  it  may  be  necessary  to  visit,  in  compliance  with 
its  provisions  ;  but  their  object  in  so  doing  must  be  first 
stated  to  the  occupants,  and  all  unnecessary  annoyance  to 
them  most  carefully  avoided. 


211 


SEWEKAGE. 

VIII.  The  said  Board  of  Health  may,  if  they  shall  think 
fit,  cause  to  be  prepared,  or  procure  a  map,  exhibiting  a 
system  of  sewerage  for  effectually  draining  their  district 
for  the  purpose  of  this  Ordinance,  upon  a  scale  to  be  pre- 
scribed by  the  General  Board  of  Health ;  and  every  such 
map  shall  be  kept  at  the  office  .of  the  said  Board,  and  shall, 
at  all  reasonable  times,  be  open  to  the  inspection  of  the 
tax-payers  of  the  district  to  which  it  applies. 

IX.  All  sewers,  drains,  or  waste-pipes,  whether  at  pres- 
ent existing,  or  which  shall  be  hereafter  constructed,  shall 
be  entirely  under  the  management  and  control  of  the  Board 
of  Health. 

X.  The  Board  of  Health  shall  cause  their  district  to  be 
effectually  drained  upon  the  plan  recommended  by  the 
General  Board  of  Health  of  Great  Britain ;  and  they  shall 
have  power  within  such  district  from  time  to  time  to  do 
any  of  the  following  things  : 

(1.)  To  repair,  arch  over,  enlarge,  lessen,  or  otherwise  alter, 
any  existing  sewer  or  drain. 

(2.)  To  construct  any  new  sewer  or  drain,  with  a  like 
power  of  repairing  and  altering  the  same. 

(3.)  To  discontinue,  close  up,  or  destroy  any  sewrer  or  drain, 

(4.)  To  carry  any  sewrer,  drain,'  or  pipe,  for  the  distribution 
of  sewage,  through,  across,  or  under  any  turnpike 
or  other  road,  or  county  bridge,  or  any  street,  or  place 
laid  out  as,  or  intended  for  a  street,  or  under  any 
cellar  or  vault  which  may  be  under  the  pavement  or 
carriage-way  of  any  street  or  intended  street,  upon 
condition  of  making  good  all  damage  done  by  them ; 
or  if  it  is  deemed  necessary  by  the  Surveyor  of  the 
Board,  into,  under,  or  through  any  lands  whatever, 
upon  making  due  compensation  for  the  same  : 


212 

Subject,  nevertheless,  to  the  restrictions  hereinafter 
mentioned  ;  that  is  to  say  • 

(1.)  All  waste-pipes,  sewers,  and  drains  shall  be  so  con- 
structed and  kept  as  not  to  create  a  nuisance,  or  be 
injurious  to  health. 

(2)  If,  by  the  exercise  of  any  of  the  above  powers,  any 
person  is  deprived  of  the  lawful  use  of  any  sewer  or 
drain,  the  Board  shall  provide  for  his  use  some  other 
sewer  or  drain  equally  convenient. 

XI.  The  Board  of  Health  are  hereby  empowered,  upon 
making  due  compensation,  to  do  the  following  things  ;  that 
is  to  say : 

(1.)  To  construct,  either  above  or  under  ground,  such 
reservoirs  and  other  works  as  may  be  necessary  for 
holding  the  sewage  flowing  from  the  sewers  of  their 
district,  or  to  provide  outfalls  for  the  same. 

(2.)^  To  cause  the  sewers  to  empty  into  such  reservoirs  or 
outfalls,  by  means  of  connecting  sewers,  or  such  other 
means  as  they  think  fit. 

(3.)  To  contract  with  any  company  or  person  for  the  sale 
of  such  sewage,  or  for  the  distribution  of  it  over  any 
land ;  and  any  such  company  for  these  purposes  shall 
have  the  same  privileges,  and  be  subject  to  the  same 
conditions,  as  would  the  local  Board. 

(4.)  To  contract  for,  purchase,  or  take  on  lease  any  build- 
ings, engines,  materials,  or  apparatus  for  the  pur- 
pose of  receiving,  storing,  disinfecting,  or  distribut- 
ing any  such  sewage,  and  to"  lease  or  assign  such 
buildings,  engines,  materials,  'or  apparatus  to  any 
company  or  person  with  whom  the  said  Board  of 
Health  may  contract  as  aforesaid. 


213 

(5.)  To  purchase  or  take  on  lease  any  land  where  such 
purchase  or  leasing  is  necessary  for  carrying  into 
execution  the  above  objects. 

XII.  No  person  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Board 
of  Health,  do  the  following  things,  or  any  of  them : 

(1.)  Cause  any  waste-pipe,  sewer,  or  drain,  to  communi- 
cate with,  or  be  emptied  into  any  sewer  of  the  Board 
of  Health. 

(2.)  Cause  any  vault,  arch,  or  cellar,  to  be  newly  built  or 
constructed  under  any  public  street ;  and  if  any 
sewer,  drain,  vault,  arch,  or  cellar  is  made,  in  con- 
travention of  this  Ordinance,  the  Board  of  Health 
may  cause  the  same  to  be  pulled  down,  if  they  shall 
think  fit,  and  the  expenses  incurred  by  them  in  so 
doing  shall  be  repaid  to  them  by  the  offender,  and 
be  recoverable  from  him  in  a  summary  manner. 

XIII.  Any  owner  or  occupier  of  premises  adjoining  any 
district,  may,  with  the  consent  of  the  Board  of  Health, 
cause  any  sewer  or  drain  from  such  premises  to  communi- 
cate with  any  sewer  of  the  Board,  upon  such  conditions  as 
they  shall  mutually  agree. 

XIV.  Whenever  it  appears  to  the  Board  of  Health  that 
any  house  or  other  building,  already  built,  is  without  any 
waste-pipe,  drain,  or  water-closet,  or  that  they  do  not 
empty  into  such  place  as  is  efficient  for  effectual  drainage, 
the  Board  may  by  notice  require  the  owner  of  such  house 
or  building,  within  a  reasonable  time  therein  specified,  to 
make  a  sufficient  drain,  of  a  construction  approved  by  the 
Board  of  Health,  emptying  as  follows  :  that  is  to  say,  if 
the  sea,  or  a  sewer  of  the  Board  of  Health,  or  any  sewer 
which  they  are  entitled  to  use,  is  within  one  hundred  feet 
of  the  site  of  such  house  or  dwelling,  emptying,  as  the 
Board  may  direct,  either  into  the  sea  or  such  sewer ;  but 


214 

if  no  such  means  of  drainage  are  within  that  distance,  then 
emptying  into  such  covered  cess-pool,  or  other  place,  not 
being  under  any  house,  and  not  being  within  such  distance 
from  any  house,  as  the  Board  of  Health  direct ;  and  if  the 
person,  on  whom  such  notice  is  served,  fail  to  comply 
with  the  same,  the  Board  may  themselves  do  the  work 
required,  and  assess  the  expenses  to  the  owner  or  occupant 
aforesaid. 

XV.  The  following  rules  shall  be  observed  with  regard 
to  drains  of  houses  not  already  built : 

(1.)  The  drains  of  every  such  new  house  or  building  as 
aforesaid,  shall  be  covered  in,  and  be  of  such  size  and 
materials,  at  such  level,  and  with  such  fall,  as  may 
be  effectual,  in  the  opinion  of  the  Surveyor  or  Engi- 
neer of  the  Board,  to  secure  a  proper  drainage  of 
such  house  or  building,  and  its  appurtenances. 

(2.)  If  the  sea,  or  a  sewer  of  the  Board  of  Health,  or  a  sewer 
which  they  are  entitled  to  use,  is  within  one  hun- 
dred feet  of  any  part  of  the  site  of  such  new  house 
or  building,  the  drains  so  to  be  constructed  shall 
communicate  with  such  one  of  those  means  of  drain- 
age as  the  Board  direct. 

(3.)  If  no  such  means  of  drainage  are  within  that  distance, 
then  the  last-mentioned  drains  shall  communicate 
with,  and  be  emptied  into  such  covered  cess-pool  or 
other  place,  not  being  under  any  house,  and  not  being 
within  such  distance  from  any  house,  as  the  Board 
of  Health  direct. 

(4.)  The  Board  shall  have  the  power  of  enforcing  and 
directing  the  construction  of  "  dry  privies,"  vaults, 
or  cess-pools,  wherever  the  nature  of  the  ground,  the 
building  materials  in  use,  the  imperfect  supply  of 
water,  or  any  other  circumstances,  shall  render  this 


215 

necessary  for  the  public  health,  especially  for  the 
preservation  of  the  purity  of  streams,  springs,  or 
other  sources  of  fresh  water. 

But :  a.  These  privies  or  vaults  shall  be  so  constructed 
that  their  contents  can  be  periodically,  conveniently, 
and  safely  removed  for  agricultural  or  other  pur- 
poses, b.  And  they  shall  be  effectually  deodorized 
by  some  proper  and  sufficient  drying  or  deodorizing 
agent,  so  that  they  will  not  be  dangerous  or  offen- 
sive, either  while  undisturbed  or  during  the  process 
of  removal. 

(5.)  Any  house  or  building  which,  during  the  process  of 
repairs,  shall  be  pulled  down  to  the  ground  floor, 
shall  be  subject  to  the  same  regulations  as  if  it 
were  a  new  house  or  building. 

XVI.  If  any  house  or  building  is  built  or  re-built,  or  any 
drain  or  vault  constructed  contrary  to  the  foregoing  provi- 
sions, the  owner  of  such  house  or  building  shall  be  subject 
to  the  following  liabilities ;  that  is  to  say  : 

(1.)  He  shall  incur  such  a  penalty  for  each  offense  as  the 

Board  may  determine  ;  or, 
(2.)  The  Board  of  Health,  after  due  notice,  and  his  failure 

to  comply  therewith,  may  thereupon   proceed  to 

do   the  work   required,    and   assess  the    expenses 

upon  said  owner. 

CLEANSING. 

XVII.  The  following  works  shall  be  done  in  respect  to 
scavenging : 

(1.)  All  public  streets,  together  with  the  foot-pavements 
thereof,  shall  be  properly  cleansed  arid  watered  ; 
all  roads  shall  be  properly  cleansed,  and  the  whole 
or  any  part  of  such  roads  may,  in  the  discretion 
of  the  Board  of  Health,  be  watered. 


216 

(2,)  All  dust,  ashes,  and  rubbish  shall  be  carried  away 
from  the  premises  of  the  inhabitants. 

(3.)  All  privies  and  cess-pools  shall  be,  from  time  to  time, 
emptied  and  cleansed ;  but  their  contents  shall 
first  be  deodorized.  And  the  Board  of  Health  may 
themselves  undertake,  or  contract  with  any  person 
to  undertake  the  aforesaid  works,  or  any  of  them. 

XVIII.  No  person,    except  by  direct  authority  of  the 
Board,  shall   undertake  to  remove  any  of  the  substances 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  section,  or  obstruct  the  Board 
or  its  agents  in  so  doing. 

XIX.  In  cases  where  the  Board  of  Health  do  not  them- 
selves undertake,  or  contract  with  any  person  to  undertake, 
the  works  heretofore  named,  they  may  make  by-laws  im- 
posing on  the  occupier  of  any  premises  any  or  all  of  the 
duties  of  cleansing.      They  may  affix  reasonable  penalties 
for  the  breach  of  said  by-laws. 

XX.  Whenever  the  Board  of  Health   shall  be  satisfied 
that  the  number  of  persons  occupying  any  tenement  or 
building  is  so  great  as  to  be  the  cause  of  nuisance,  or  sick- 
ness, or  a  source  of  filth  ;  or  that  any  tenements  or  build- 
ings are  not  furnished  with  vaults  constructed  according  to 
the   pr6visions    of  this   Ordinance ;     or  with  a   sufficient 
number    of   privies  or   water-closets,  with   underground 
drains  ;    with  proper  ash-pits,  or  with  a  proper  water-sup- 
ply ;  or  that,  from  any  cause,  they  are  in  a  condition  which 
is  prejudicial  or  dangerous  to  the  public  health,  or  to  the 
health  of  the  occupants  themselves — they  may  thereupon 
issue  notice  in  writing  to  such  persons,  or  any  of  them — 
that  is  to  say,  the  owner,  agent,  or  occupant,  or  either  of 
them — to  cause  either  or  all  of  these  deficiencies  to  be  sup- 
plied, and  the  premises  put  into  a  cleanly  and  proper  condi- 
tion, within  such  reasonable  time  as  they  shall  appoint ;  and 
in  case  of  neglect  or  refusal  to  obey  such  notice,  they  may 


217 

themselves  cause  the  alterations  and  cleansings  to  be  done 
forthwith,  and  the  expense  of  it  shall  be  paid  by  such  own- 
er, agent,  occupant,  or  other  person.  Or  they  may,  if  they 
think  fit,  issue  notice  to  the  persons  inhabiting  such  tene- 
ment, or  to  the  owner  or  agent,  requiring  them  to  remove 
from,  and  quit  the  premises,  within  such  time  as  the  Board 
may  deem  reasonable ;  and  if  the  person  or  persons  so  no- 
tified, or  any  of  them,  shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  remove 
from  said  tenement  or  building,  the  Board  of  Health  are 
hereby  fully  authorized  and  empowered  thereupon  forcibly 
to  remove  the  same. 

XXI.  The  Board  of  Health  may  make  and  issue  by-laws 
for  the  prevention  of  nuisances  arising   from  filth,  dust, 
ashes,  and  rubbish,  or  from  the  keeping  of  animals,  and 
may  annex  reasonable  penalties  for  the  breach  of  said  by- 
laws. 

XXII.  The  business  of  a  blood-boiler,  bone-boiler,  bone- 
burner,  fell-monger,  slaughterer  of  animals  of  any  descrip- 
tion not  fit    for  human  food,  soap-boiler,  tallow-melter, 
tripe-boiler,  or  other  noxious  or  offensive  business,  trade  or 
manufacture,  shall  not,  without  the  consent  of  the  Board, 
be  established  within   the  district ;  and  the  Board   may 
make  such  regulations  in  regard  to  these  occupations  as 
they  may  deem  expedient. 

XXIII.  When  the  contents  of  any  sewer,  or  any  accu- 
mulations of  filth,  are  discharged  into  any  river  or  stream, 
in  the  bed  of  which  the   quantity  of  water  is  so  much 
diminished,  either  by  drought  during  the  summer,  or  by 
any  other  cause,  as  to  be  insufficient  to  keep  the  channel 
clear,  the  Board  of  Health  may,  by  excavations  or  other 
operations,  so  deepen  the  channel  as  that  the  flow  of  water 
will  be  accelerated,  and  the  contents  of  said   sewers  or 
drains  be  thereby  prevented  from  accumulating  and  stag- 
nating in  parts  thereof,  to  the  injury  of  the  health,  and  the 
annoyance  of  the  surrounding  population. 


218 

XXIY.  No  person,  without  the  license  of  the  Board  of 
Health,  shall  throw  into,  or  leave  in,  or  upon  any  street, 
square,  or  vacant  lot,  or  into  any  pond  or  body  of  water, 
within  the  limits  of  this  town  or  district,  any  dead  animal, 
dirt,  saw-dust,  soot,  ashes,  cinders,  shavings,  hair,  manure, 
oyster,  clam,  or  lobster  shells,  waste  water,  rubbish,  or  filth 
of  any  kind,  or  any  refuse,  animal,  or  vegetable  whatso- 
ever. Nor  shall  any  person  throw  into,  or  leave  in  or 
upon  any  dock,  flats,  or  tide- water,  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  this  district,  any  dead  animal  or  other  foul  or  offensive 
matter,  except  as  above  provided. 

XXV.  The  owners  and  occupants  of  livery  and  other 
stables,  within  the  limits  of  the  town  or  district,  as  the 
case  may  be,  shall  not  wash  or  clean  their   carriages  or 
horses,  or  cause  them  to  be  washed  or   cleaned,  in  the 
streets,  nor  otherwise  encumber  the  same  ;  they  shall  keep 
their  stables  and  yards  clean,  and  shall  not  permit  more 
than  four  cart-loads  of  manure  to  accumulate  in  or  near  the 
same,  at  any  one  time  between  the  first  day  of  May  and 
the  first  day  of  November ;  nor  within  that  period  suffer 
the  same  to  be  removed,  except  between  the  hour  of  twelve 
at  night  and  two  hours  after  sunrise. 

XXVI.  Swine  shall  not  be  kept  within  the  limits  of  the 
town  without  a  permit  from  the  Board  of  Health. 

SLAUGHTER-HOUSES. 

XXVII.  No  place  shall  be  used  or  occupied  as  a  slaugh- 
ter-house except  by  permission  of  the  Board  of  Health ; 
and  they  may  make  by-laws  with  respect  to  their  manage- 
ment, and  for  keeping  the  same  in  a  wholesome  state. 

THE   MARKETS. 

XXVIII.  The  Medical  Health  Officer,  or  either  of  the 
Inspectors  or  Agents  of  the  Board  of  Health,  may,  at  all 


219 

reasonable  times,  enter  into    and  inspect  any  shop,  build 
ing,  stall,  or  place  kept  or  used  for  the  sale  of  butchers' 
meat,  poultry,  or  fish,  or  as  a  slaughter-house ;  and  to  ex 
amine  any  animal,  carcass,  meat,  poultry,  game,  flesh,  or 
fish,  which  may  be  therein ;  and  in  case  either  of  them, 
being  intended  for  the  food  of  man,  shall  appear  to  be  unfit 
for  such  food,  the  same  may  be  seized;  and  if  it  prove  to  be 
unwholesome,  he  shall  order  the  same  to  be  destroyed,  or 
be  so  disposed  of  as  to  "prevent  its  being  again  exposed  for 
sale. 

XXIX.  No  person  shall  be  permitted  to  bring  into  town 
for  sale,  or  sell,  or  offer  for  sale,  any  fresh  fish,  until  the  same 
shall  have  been  cleansed  of  their  entrails  and  refuse  parts  ; 
and  such  entrails  and  parts  shall  be  thrown  overboard  below 
low- water  mark ;  and  shall  never  be  kept  beyond  the  flowing 
of  the  next  tide  ;  and  until  so  thrown  overboard,  they  shall 
be  kept  in  a  close  and  safe  manner  on  board  the  vessels  or 
boats  on  which  the  fish  are  brought.     And  no  person  shall 
sell,  or  offer  for  sale,  fish  of  any  kind,  unless  the  same  be 
kept  in  covered  stalls,  fish-boxes,  or  other  houses,  which  shall 
always  be  clean  and  in  good  order ;  or,  in  clean  covered 
carts,  or  boxes,  well  secured  from  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

XXX.  No  person  shall  have  in  his  possession  for  sale,  or 
shall  sell,  or  offer  for  sale,  within  the  limits  of  the  town,  any 
vegetables  whatever,  excepting  green  peas  in  the  pod,  and 
green  corn  in  the  inner  husks,  which  have  not  previously 
been  divested  of  such  parts  or  appendages  as  are  not  com- 
monly used  for  food. 

XXXI.  No  person  shall  land  on  any  wharf  or  other  place, 
or  shall  bring  into  town,  any  decayed  or  damaged  grains, 
vegetables,  or  fruit,  without  a  permit  from  an  officer  of  the 
Board  of  Health,  and  in  such  manner  as  he  may  direct. 

XXXII.  No  person  shall  sell  any  adulterated  or  unwhole- 
some food  or  drink ;  and  if,  upon  being  notified  by  the  Board 


220 

to  discontinue  such  practice,  he  shall  neglect  or  refuse  to 
obey  such  order,  he  may  be  ejected  from  the  precincts  of 
the  market,  and  such  articles  of  food  or  drink  may  be 
seized  and  destroyed. 

XXXIII.  If  any  person  shall  falsify  any  milk,  by  adultera- 
tion with  water  or  otherwise,  or  by  the  abstraction  of  its 
cream,  or  any  other  substance  originally  belonging  to  it;  or,  if 
any  person  having  reason  to  believe  it  so  falsified,  shall  sell  the 
same,  or  cause  it  to  be  sold,  he  shall  be  liable  to  have  it  seized 
and  destroyed,  and  to  fine  and  imprisonment,  and  to  have 
placards,  stating  his  offense  and  the  sentence  imposed,  posted 
up  at  his  place  of  business  or  elsewhere,  as  the  Board  may 
determine.  This  shall  also  apply  to  milk  from  diseased  cows. 

XXXIV.  All  bread,  ^except  as  specially  provided  to  the 
contrary  in  this  section,  shall  be  sold  by  weight. 

A  loaf  of  bread  shall  be  two  pounds  in  weight ;  and  bread 
may  be  baked  and  sold  in  whole,  half,  three-quarter  and 
quarter  loaves,  but  not  otherwise,  except  in  bread  composed 
in  chief  part  of  rye  or  maize. 

Small  rolls  and  fancy  bread,  weighing  less  than  one 
quarter  of  a  pound  each,  may  be  baked  and  sold  without 
regard  to  weight. 

In  every  shop  or  place  where  bread  is  sold  by  retail,  and 
in  each  front  window  thereof,  there  shall  be  conspicuously 
placed  a  card,  on  which  shall  be  legibly  printed  a  list  of 
the  different  kinds  and  qualities  of  loaves  sold  there,  with 
the  price  of  each  per  loaf,  and  half,  three-quarter,  and 
quarter  loaf. 

All  bread,  except  small  rolls  and  fancy  bread  of  less  than 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  each,  sold  in  any  shop  or  place,  shall 
be  weighed  in  the  presence  of  the  buyer,  and  if  found  de- 
ficient in  weight,  bread  shall  be  added  to  make  up  the 
weight  required  by  law. 


221 

Any  person,  who  shall  violate  any  of  the  provisions  of 
this  act,  shall  forfeit  for  each  offense  the  sum  of 
dollars,  and  he  shall  also  be  liable  to  the  penalties  provided 
in  Section  XXXIII. 

XXXV.  And  the  Board  of  Health  is  also  hereby  author- 
ized to  make,  promulgate,  and  enforce  such  by-laws  for  the 
government  of  the  market-houses  and  the  sale  of  provisions 
as  they  may  think  expedient. 

DRAM-SHOPS  AND   DRINKING-HOUSES. 

XXXVI.  All    unlicensed    dram-shops    and    drinking- 
houses  for  the  sale  of  intoxicating  drinks,  are  hereby  de- 
clared to  be  nuisances,  and  may  be  abated  as  such,  by  the 
Board  of  Health. 

COMMON   LODGING-HOUSES. 

XXXVII.  No  person  shall  keep  a  common  lodging-house 
without  a  license  from  the  Board  of  Health,  after  inspec- 
tion by  the  Medical  Health  Officer  of  the  Board.     And  a 
register  shall  be  kept,  in  which  shall  be  entered  the  name 
of  every  person  applying  to  register  any  common  lodging- 
house  kept  by  him,  and  the  situation  of  every  such  house ; 
and  the  said  Board  shall,  from  time  to  time,  make  by-laws 
for  fixing  the  number  of  lodgers  who  may  be  received  into 
each  house  so  registered ;  for  promoting  cleanliness  and 
ventilation  therein ;    and  with  respect  to  the  inspection 
thereof,  and  the  conditions  and  restrictions  under  which 
such  inspection  may  be  made  ;  and  the  person  keeping 
any  such  lodging-house  shall  give  access  to  the  same,  when 
required  by  any  person  who  shall  produce  the  written 
authority  of  the  Board,  for  the  purpose  of  inspecting  the 
same,  or  for  introducing  or  using  therein  any  disinfecting 
process  ;  and  the  expenses  incurred  by  the  said  Board  in 
such   process  shall   be  assessed   and  collected    from  the 
keeper  of  said  house ;  and  if  any  such  keeper  of  such  lodg- 


222 

ing-house  shall  neglect  or  refuse  to  obey  the  directions  of 
the  Board  of  Health,  he  shall  forfeit  his  license. 

CELLARS. 

XXXYlLL.  No  cellar  or  underground  room  shall  be  let 
or  occupied  separately  as  a  dwelling,  without  being  regis- 
tered and  licensed  by  the  Board,  and  unless  it  possess  the 
following  requisites ;  that  is  to  say: 

(1.)  Unless  the  same  is  in  every  part  thereof  at  least  seven 
feet  in  height,  measured  from  floor  to  ceiling  there- 
of; nor, 

(2.)  Unless  the  same  is  at  least  one  foot  of  its  height  above 
the  surface  of  the  street  or  ground  adjoining,  or 
nearest  to  the  same  ;  nor, 

(3.)  Unless  there  is  outside  of,  and  adjoining  such  cellar  or 
room,  and  extending  along  the  entire  frontage  there- 
of, and  upwards,  from  six  inches  below  the  level  of 
the  floor  thereof,  up  to  the  surface  of  the  said  street 
or  ground,  an  open  area  of  at  least  three  feet  wide 
in  every  part ;  nor, 

(4.)  Unless  the  same  is  well  and  effectually  drained,  and 
secured  against  the  rise  of  effluvia  from  any  sewer 
or  drain  ;  nor, 

(5.)  Unless  there  is  appurtenant  to  such  cellar  or  room  the 
use  of  a  water-closet  or  privy,  as  the  Board  may 
require ;  and  of  an  ash-pit,  furnished  with  proper 
doors  and  coverings  ;  nor, 

(6.)  Unless  the  same  has  a  fire-place,  with  a  proper  chim- 
ney, or  other  ventilating  flue ;  nor, 

(7.)  Unless  the  same  has  an  external  window  of  at  least 
nine  superficial  feet  in  area,  clear  of  the  sash-frame, 
and  made  to  open  in  such  manner  as  is  approved  by 
the  Surveyor  of  the  Board. 


223 

And  whosoever  lets,  occupies,  or  continues  to  let,  or 
knowingly  suffers  to  be  occupied,  any  cellar  or  under- 
ground room,  contrary  to  this  section,  shall  be  liable  to  for- 
feit his  license,  and  shall  be  subject,  if  he  persist,  to  such 
other  penalty  as  the  Board  may  determine  :  and  every  cel- 
lar or  underground  room,  in  which  any  person  passes  the 
night,  shall  .be  deemed  to  be  occupied  as  a  dwelling  within 
the  meaning  of  this  Ordinance ;  but  the  above  rule  shall 
be  qualified  in  respect  to  areas  as  follows : 

(1.)  In  any  area  adjoining  a  cellar  or  underground  room, 
there  may  be  placed  steps  necessary  for  access  to 
such  cellar  or  room,  if  the  same  are  so  placed  as  not 
to  be  over  or  across  the  said  external  window. 

(2.)  Over  or  across  any  such  area  there  may  be  steps 
necessary  for  access -to  any  building  above  the  cellar 
or  room  to  which  such  area  adjoins,  if  the  same  be 
so  placed  as  not  to  be  over  or  across  any  such  external 
window. 

NEW   STREETS   AND   HOUSES. 

XXXIX.  The  Board,  with  the  consent  of  the  town 
councils,  and  with  the  advice  and  aid  of  the  Engineer  or 
Surveyor,  shall  fix  and  determine  the  following  matters ; 
that  is  to  say: 

(1.)  With  respect  to  the  level  and  width  of  new  streets,  and 
the  provisions  for  the  sewerage  and  paving  thereof. 

(2.)  With  respect  to  the  structure  of  walls  of  new  buildings, 
in  reference  to  stability  and  the  prevention  of  fires. 

(3.)  With  respect  to  the  sufficiency  of  the  space  in  connec- 
tion with  buildings,  to  secure  a  free  circulation  of 
air,  and  the  ventilation  of  buildings. 


224 

(4.)  With  reference  to  the  drainage  of  buildings,  to  water- 
closets,  privies,  and  cess-pools  in  connection  with 
buildings,  and  to  the  closing  and  prohibition  of  build- 
ings or  parts  of  buildings  unfit  for  human  habitation. 

The  regulations  of  this  Section  and  of  Sections  XX., 
XXXVII.,  and  XXXVIII,  shall  be  considered  also  as  par- 
ticularly applicable,  and  may  be  enforced  in  regard  to 
Model  Houses,  and  to  houses  already  built  or  occupied. 

They  may  annex  such  penalties,  and  further  provide  for 
the  observance  of  these  regulations  by  such  by-laws  as  they 
think  necessary ,  and  may  alter  or  pull  down  any  work 
begun  or  done  in  contravention  of  such  by-laws :  Provided, 
however,  that  no  person  shall  be  deprived  by  any  by-law 
of  such  right  of  appeal  as  is  hereinafter  given  in  respect  of 
by-laws. 

SUPPLY   OF   WATER. 

XL.  The  following  provisions  shall  be  observed  with 
respect  to  the  supply  of  water : 

(1.)  All  public  wells,  pumps,  conduits,  or  other  works 
used  for  the  gratuitous  supply  of  water  to  the  inhab- 
itants shall  vest  in,  and  be  under  the  control  of,  a 
Board  of  Improvement  Commissioners,  or  such  per- 
sons as  may  be  chosen  for  that  purpose  by  the  town 
councils,  with  the  approbation  of  the  Board  of  Health, 
who  shall  have  the  right  to  direct  the  use  of  the 
water  for  any  sanitary  purpose. 

(2.)  A  sufficient  quantity  shall  be  supplied  for  domestic 
purposes,  the  takers  paying  such  fixed  rates  therefor 
as  may  be  determined ;  and, 

(3.)  May  be  supplied  to  any  public  baths  or  wash-houses, 
or  for  manufacturing  purposes,  on  such  terms  and 
conditions  as  may  be  mutually  agreed  upon. 


225 

(4.)  A  sufficient  quantity  shall  be  provided  for  flushing 
sewers  and  drains,  for  putting  out  fires,  for  cleaning 
and  watering  the  streets,  and  for  other  public  purposes. 

(5.)  The  expense  of  providing  a  supply  of  water  for  the 
foregoing  purposes,  over  what  shall  be  paid  by  the 
takers,  shall  be  assessed  on  the  inhabitants,  or  paid 
in  such  other  way  as  the  councils  shall  determine. 

XLI.  Any  person  who  willfully  wastes  or  fouls  the 
water,  or  injures  any  of  the  works  for  its  supply,  shall  be 
liable  to  such  penalties  as  the  Board  or  the  Commissioners 
shall  determine,  and  shall  be  also  liable  to  a  suit  for  dam- 
age at  common  law. 

XLII.  When  it  shall  appear  that  any  house  or  tenement 
let  to  other  persons  than  the  owners  thereof  is  not  in  any 
way  supplied  with  water,  the  owners  of  such  house  or  tene- 
ment shall  be  notified  by  the  Board  of  Health  to  supply 
the  same  ;  and  in  case  of  refusal,  or  neglect  to  do  so  within 
a  reasonable  time,  the  Board  may  supply  the  same  at  the 
expense  of  the  owner,  or,  at  its  option,  vacate  the  premises. 

VENTILATION. 

XLIII.  No  cellar,  lodging-house,  or  other  "house,"  in- 
tended for  the  constant  occupation  of  not  less  than  ten 
persons,  or  for  the  occasional  assemblage  of  large  numbers 
of  persons,  shall  be  used  or  occupied,  except  under  the 
following  conditions  ;  that  is  to  say : 

(1.)  Unless  the  same  shall  be  provided  with  some  effectual 
ventilation,  as  follows : 

a.  By  ventiducts  for  supplying  fresh  air  of  a  suita- 
ble temperature,  which  shall  have  a  capacity  of  not 
less  than  one  hundred  square  inches  for  every  twenty- 

15 


226 

five  persons,  and  in  the  same  proportion  for   any 
greater  or  less  number  ;  or, 

b:  By  some  other  mode  capable  of  supplying  pure 
air  to  each  person  at  the  rate  of  four  cubic  feet  per 
minute. 

c.  By  discharging- ventiducts,  which  open  directly 
into  heated  flues,  or  which  are  conducted  into  the 
outer  air  above  the  roof,  and  then  terminated  by  a 
suitable  cowl  or  cap,  and  which  shall  have  a  capacity 
of  not  less  than  two-thirds  of  that  of  the  admitting 
ventiducts  j  or. 

d.  By  an  open  fire-place ;   an  Arnott's  valve ;  an 
opening  into  some  other  ventilated  apartment ;  or, 

e.  By  some  other  effectual  method  of  expelling  the 
foul  air. 

(2.)  Or  unless  the  drains,  vaults,  and  water-closets  are  se- 
curely trapped  and  effectually  ventilated  : 

a.  By  connecting  them  with  the  rain-water  spouts ;  or, 

b.  If  within  the  house,  as  in  the  case  of  water- 
closets,  by  a  ventilating  flue  opening  above  the  roof, 
or  which  is  connected  with  a  heated  flue. 

PLEASURE-GROUNDS. 

XLIV.  The  Board  of  Health  may,  with  the  approval  of 
the  Town  Council,  hold,  purchase  by  agreement,  take  on 
lease,  maintain,  lay  out,  plant,  and  improve  land  for  the  pur- 
pose of  being  laid  out  as  public  walks  or  pleasure-grounds, 
and  support  or  contribute  towards  any  premises  provided 
for  such  purposes  by  any  person  whomsoever. 

EPIDEMIC   AND    CONTAGIOUS   DISEASES. 

XLV.  When  any  epidemic,  endemic,  or  contagious  disease 
shall  threaten  the  town,  or  affect  any  part  of  the  same,  in 


227 

order  that  measures  of  precaution  may  be  taken  with 
promptitude,  according  to  the  exigency  of  the  case,  the 
Board  of  Health  may  issue  such  directions  and  regulations 
as  they  may  think  fit ;  and  they  shall  provide  for  the  fre- 
quent cleansing  of  streets  and  public  ways,  and  for  the 
cleaning,  purifying,  ventilating,  and  disinfecting  of  houses 
by  the  owners  or  agents  ;  for  the  removal  of  nuisances  ;  to 
provide  for  the  sick  by  establishing  and  opening  temporary 
hospitals,  and  for  the  speedy  interment  of  the  dead  ;  and, 
generally,  for  preventing  or  mitigating  such  malignant  dis- 
eases, in  such  manner  as  to  the  said  Board  seems  expedient. 
And  if  any  vessel,  having  any  contagious  or  other  malig- 
nant disease  on  board,  or  having  come  from  ports  where 
such  diseases  are  prevailing,  shall  arrive  at  either  of  the 
wharves,  or  come  to  anchor  near  them,  she  shall  be  ordered 
by  the  Health  Officer  to  proceed  to  Quarantine,  there  to 
report  herself  to  the  Quarantine  Physician. 

PUBLIC    VACCINATION. 

XL VI.  In  order  to  prevent  the  spread  of  small-pox,  and 
to  diffuse  the  benefits  of  vaccination,  it  is  hereby  ordained 
that  there  shall  be  provided  a  suitable  apartment  for  the 
Medical  Officer  of  the  Board,  at  which  place  he  shall  attend 
at  such  times  as  the  Board  may  direct ;  and  he  shall  vaccin- 
ate without  charge  any  inhabitant  of  this  town,  not  pre- 
viously vaccinated,  who  may  apply  for  that  purpose.  And 
he  shall  give  certificates  of  said  vaccination,  without  which 
no  child  shall  be  admitted  to  the  public  schools.  And  he 
shall  also  always  have  on  hand,  as  far  as  practicable,  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  vaccine  lymph  to  supply  the  physicians 
of  the  public  institutions, 

INTERMENT    OF   THE   DEAD. 

XL VII.  The  Board  of  Health,  with  the  consent  of  the 
councils,  shall,  from  time  to  time,  provide,  in  such  places 


228 

as,  having  regard  to  the  public  health,  may  appear  to  them 
expedient,  and  within  or  without  the  limits  of  the  district, 
burial-grounds  of  sufficient  extent  for  the  decent  interment 
of  the  bodies  of  all  persons  dying  within  the  district ;  and 
it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  said  Board,  in  case  it  appears  to 
them  necessary  or  expedient  so  to  do,  to  enlarge  any  burial- 
ground  provided  by  them  under  this  Ordinance,  and  to 
make  any  road  to  such  ground,  or  to  enlarge  or  improve 
any  existing  road  for  facilitating  the  approach  to  such 
burial-ground ;  and  for  providing  any  such  burial-ground, 
or  improving  it,  they  may  purchase  any  lands  which  it  may 
appear  to  them  expedient  to  purchase  for  that  purpose. 

XL  VIII.  They  may  inclose  and  lay  out  the  burial-grounds 
thus  provided,  and  build  therein  suitable  chapels  for  the 
performance  of  the  burial  service,  and  such  other  buildings 
and  works  as  may  appear  to  them  fitting  and  propel. 

XLIX.  When  the  said  Board  shall  be  of  opinion  that  in- 
terment (otherwise  than  in  the  burial-grounds  provided  in 
this  Ordinance)  should  be  discontinued,  wholly,  or  subject 
to  any  exception  or  exceptions,  in  any  part  or  parts  of  the 
town,  they  shall,  after  due  notice,  order  their  discontinu- 
ance ;  and  the  grounds  so  discontinued  shall  be  closed  or 
fenced  up  in  such  a  manner  as  to  protect  the  public  health, 
and  secure  proper  respect  to  the  bodies  interred  therein. 
And  this  section  shall  also  be  considered  as  applying  to  vaults 
under  churches  and  chapels,  as  well  as  to  the  open  burial- 
grounds. 

L.  No  burial  shall  take  place,  or  be  permitted  in  any  of 
the  so-closed  grounds,  or  under,  or  in  any  churches  or  cha- 
pels to  which  this  order  shall  have  been  applied,  except  in 
the  cases  following  ;  that  is  to  say  : 

(1.)  In  case  of  long  previously-existing  private  rights  of 
sepulture,  the  Board  may,  in  their  discretion,  give  a 


229 

license,  under  such  restrictions  as  may  seem  to  them 
proper. 

(2.)  Or  if,  on  representations  properly  made  to  them,  they 
may  deem  the  permission,  if  granted  in  exceptional 
cases,  not  prejudicial  to  the  public  health. 

LI.  But  any  and  all  persons  who  may  have,  by  any  such 
discontinuance  or  closure  of  any  burial-ground,  as  provided 
for  in  section  XLIX,  been  deprived  of  any  rights  of  sepul- 
ture, shall  have  in  the  newly-consecrated  ground  the  same 
rights  as  they  respectively  would  have  had  in  the  burial- 
places  thus  closed  and  discontinued  ;  or  they  shall  be  other- 
wise equitably  compensated  therefor. 

LIT.  The  relatives  of  any  deceased  person,  with  the  con- 
sent of  the  Registrar,  or  other  person  having  charge  of  the 
closed  ground  in  which  the  body  of  the  deceased  has  been 
interred,  and  subject  to  the  regulations  of  the  Board,  may 
cause  such  body  to  be  removed  to,  and  re-interred  in  any 
burial-ground  provided  under  this  Ordinance. 

LIU.  The  Board,  from  time  to  time,  may  make  regulations 
as  to  the  depth  and  formation  of  the  graves  and  places  of 
interment,  the  nature  of  the  coffins  to  be  received  in  the  burial- 
grounds  thus  provided,  the  time  and  mode  of  removing  bodies, 
and  generally,  as  to  all  matters  connected  with  the  good  order 
of  such  burial-grounds,  and  as  to  the  conduct  of  funeral  pro- 
cessions, and  the  convenient  exercise  of  the  rights  of  interment 
therein :  and  such  regulations  shall  be  printed  and  published, 
and  shall  be  fixed  and  continued  on  some  conspicuous  part 
of  every  such  burial-ground. 

LIV.  All  burials  shall  be  registered  in  books  to  be  kept 
for  the  purpose,  in  the  manner  directed,  and  by  the  officer 
whose  duty  it  shall  be  made  by  the  Board  of  Health. 

LV.  No  burial  shall  take  place,  except  upon  the  written 
permit  of  the  Registrar  or  Coroner,  who,  before  issuing  said 


230 

permit,  shall  require  to  be  furnished  with  the  name,  sex,  age, 
rank,  profession  or  occupation,  and  the  residence  at  the  time 
of  death,  of  said  person ;  nor  shall  such  permit  be  then  issued, 
except  the  cause  of  the  death  of  said  deceased  person  shall  be 
fully  certified  to  the  Registrar  or  other  permitting  officer,  by 
some  regularly-licensed  or  competent  physician  or  surgeon. 

LVL  The  Board  may,  at  any  time  after  the  passage  of  this 
Ordinance,  build,  or  otherwise  pro  vide,  in  suitable  and  conve- 
nient locations,  houses  for  the  reception  and  care  of  the 
bodies  of  the  dead,  previously  to,  and  until  interment,  and 
make  arrangements  for  the  reception  and  care  of  such  bodies 
therein,  and  appoint  fit  officers  for  such  houses  of  reception ; 
and  they  may  also  appoint  or  provide  medical  or  other  officers, 
who,  in  cases  where  the  friends  of  the  deceased  so  desire,  may 
cause  the  body  of  the  deceased  to  be  decently  removed  to  one 
of  the  houses  of  reception  provided  for  under  this  section. 

LVII.  "  Wakes"  shall  not  be  permitted,  without  the  special 
leave,  in  writing,  of  the  Board,  or  of  its  authorized  agent : 
nor  then,  if  the  death  has  been  occasioned  by  any  malignant 
or  epidemic  disease ;  or  if  from  any  cause  the  health  of  those 
who  would  be  there  present,  or  of  others  with  whom  they 
would  be  in  contact,  would  be  thereby  endangered. 

LVIIL  The  Board  may,  from  time  to  time,  fix,  according 
to  a  just  and  regular  scale  of  charges,  the  rates  in  classes, 
varying  according  to  circumstances,  of  prices  for  the  conduct 
of  funerals ;  but  so  that  in  respect  of  the  lowest  of  such  classes, 
the  funeral  may  be  conducted  with  decency  and  solemnity. 

GENERAL  PROVISIONS. 

LIX.  There  shall  be  elected  or  appointed  annually,  or  at 
such  times  as  shall  be  determined  by  the  town  councils,  for 
the  purposes  of  this  Ordinance,  the  following  officers,  who 


231 

shall  receive  such  compensation,  and  perform  such  specific 
duties  as  shall  from  time  to  time  be  determined ;  that  is  to  say  : 

(1.)  A  Eegistrar,  who  shall  be  a  Doctor  of  Medicine,  whose 
duty  it  shall  be  to  record  the  births,  deaths,  and  mar 
riages,  and  to  regulate  all  funerals,  and  the  proceed- 
ings thereunto  appurtenant. 

(2.)  A  Medical  Health  Officer — who  shall  be  the  principal 
physician-in-ordinary  to  the  Board  of  Health — who 
shall  superintend,  under  the  direction  of  the  Board 
of  Health,  all  the  sanitary  measures  ordered  by  the 
Board ;  and  who  shall  advise  them  generally  as  to  all 
matter  relating  to  the  public  health. 

(3.)  A  Board  of  Consulting  Physicians,  who  shall  be 

elected  annually,  and  whose  duty  it  shall  be,  in  case 
of  an  alarm  of  any  contagious  or  other  dangerous  dis- 
ease occurring  in  the  district,  to  give  the  Board  of 
Health  all  such  professional  advice  and  information 
as  they  may  request,  with  a  view  to  the  prevention 
of  such  disease,  and  at  all  convenient  times,  when 
requested,  to  aid  and  assist  them  with  their  counsel 
and  advice  in  all  matters  that  relate  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  health  of  the  inhabitants. 

(4.)  An  Engineer,  or  Surveyor,  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to 
furnish  all  plans  required  for  the  use  of  the  Board ; 
to  advise  in  relation  to  the  construction  and  grade  of 
the  streets  ;  the  structure  of  the  drains ;  the  water- 
supply  ;  and,  generally,  with  regard  to  all  plans  for 
improving  the  surface  and  substratum  of  the  district. 

(5.)  Superintendents  of  Streets,  of  Health  (or  Cleaning),  of 
Drains,  and  of  Burials ;  whose  duty  it  shall  be  to 
supervise,  and  direct,  and  execute  the  details  of  the 
various  departments  to  which  they  shall  be  assigned, 


232 

under  the  direction  of  the  Board,  of  the  Health 
Officer,  or  of  such  other  persons  as  the  Board  of 
Health  may  direct. 

(6.)  Such  other  officers  as  the  councils  may  from  time  to 
time  determine. 

LX.  Any  person  who  shall  violate  the  provisions  of  this 
Ordinance,  or  any  of  them ;  or  who  shall  obstruct  the 
Board,  or  any  of  its  authorized  agents,  in  the  performance 
of  their  lawful  duties  ;  or  who  shall  do  any  act  or  acts  by 
which  the  public  health  is  endangered — shall  be  fined  there- 
for not  less  than  .  dollars,  nor  more  than  dollars, 
for  each  and  every  offense,  and  he  shall  be  subjected  to  such 
other  penalty  as  the  Board  of  Health,  with  the  approval  of 
the  councils,  may  fix  and  determine,  and  which  are  not  re- 
pugnant to  the  Constitution,  and  laws  of  the  State,  or  in 
violation  of  the  regulations  of  the  General  Board  of  Health. 

LXI.  If  any  person  feel  aggrieved  by  any  order  of  the 
Board  of  Health,  or  by  the  orders  or  acts  of  any  of  its 
accredited  officers  or  agents,  he  shall  always  have  the  right 
of  appeal  to  the  Board  of  Health  ;  or,  if  he  so  elect,  he 
may  prosecute  such  appeal  in  the  courts  of  law,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  Bill  of  Rights,  as  in  such  cases  made  and 
provided ;  but  no  such  appeal  shall  be  entertained  by  the 
Board  of  Health,  unless  said  appeal  is  made  within  four 
months  next  after  making  such  order,  or  the  doing  of  such 
act,  nor  unless  ten  days'  notice,  in  writing,  is  given  to  the 
party  against  whom  the  appeal  is  brought,  stating  the  na- 
ture and  grounds  thereof;  nor  then,  unless  the  appellant 
enter  into  sureties  duly  to  abide  the  decision  of  the  Board, 
or  to  prosecute  his  appeal  in  the  proper  Court. 

LXH.  All  Ordinances  and  parts  of  Ordinances  heretofore 
passed,  inconsistent  with  this  Ordinance,  are  hereby  repealed. 


233 

- 
APPENDIX   A. 

FORM   OF  RETURN. 

The  Health  Officer,  or  Inspector,  after  ascertaining  the 
condition  of  his  district,  shall  make  his  report  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner,  viz. : 

"  Health  Officer,  A.  B.  ,  District  ,  reports  the 

condition  of  premises  No.  ,  street,  to  he  as  follows  : 

1.  PREVALENT  SICKNESS. 

(Under  this  head  state  what  the  disease  is,  and  how  many- 
are  affected.) 

2.  OVERCROWDING. 

(State  in  figures  the  numher  of  persons  occupying  the 
the  rooms  or  houses  in  badly  situated  localities.) 

3.  VENTILATION. 

(State  if  there  is  any ;  and,  if  so,  whether  it  is  hy  doors, 
windows,  or  fire-places  ;  especially  when  the  apartments  are 
closed  at  night.) 

4.  DRAINAGE. 

(State  simply  if  there  is  any,  and  whether  it  is  "good"  or 
11  bad:1 

6.  FILTH  AND  RUBBISH. 

(State  the  kind,  quantity  (hy  estimate),  and  its  specific 
locality.) 

6.  WATER  SUPPLY. 

(State  if  there  is  a  supply  of  water  for  cooking,  washing, 
or  bathing,  and  of  what  kind.) 

T.  DEAD  BODIES  IN  SINGLE  LIVING  ROOMS. 

(State  the  cause  of  death,  and  the  general  condition  of  the 
apartment  and  its  inhabitants.) 

He  shall  also  make  a  record,  in  a  book  to  be  furnished 
him  for  that  purpose,  of  the  same  facts  in  tabular  form, 


234 
APPENDIX  B. 

FORM   OF  NOTICE   TO   ABATE   NUISANCES. 

(To  be  served  by  any  Officer  competent  to  serve  a  civil  process.) 

CITY  OF 
OFFICE  OF  BOARD  OF  HEALTH,  18 

To  No.  St. 

SIR  : — Your  premises  having  been  examined,  and  ascertained 
to  be  in  a  condition  which  is,  in  my  opinion,  prejudicial  to  the 
public  health,  by  reason  of 

you  are  hereby  required,  in  conformity  with  the  provisions  of 
an  Order  of  the  Board  of  Health,  passed  to 

within  hours. 

Health  Officer. 
• 
Approved. 

Chairman  Committee  of  Board  of  Health. 

EXTRACT  FROM  THE  ORDER. 

"  Ordered,  That  the  Medical  Health  Officer,  with  the  concur- 
rence of  the  Committee  of  the  Board,  be  and  he  is 
hereby  authorized  to  take  such  measures  in  regard  to  causes  or 
occasions  of  danger  to  the  public  health  of  the  city,  as  he  may 
deem  necessary  and  proper  for  its  preservation." 


EEP  O  E  T 


UPON 


SEWERAGE,  WATER  SUPPLY,  AND  OFFAL. 

EY  JOHN  H.  GRISCOM,  M.D.,  OF  NEW  YORK. 


237 


EEPOKT. 


IN  his  artificial  condition  of  civilization,  there  are  two 
classes  of  circumstances  which  effect  the  health  of  man  :  1st, 
Those  which  are  found  exclusively  within  his  domocile ;  and 
2d,  Those  which  are  more  particularly  operative  without  his 
dwelling.  To  the  former  class  belong  the  various  impurities 
of  the  atmosphere  derived  from  respiration,  combustion,  and 
exuberant  moisture,  the  quality  of  food,  the  clothing,  and 
personal  cleanliness.  Included  in  the  latter,  or  extra-domi- 
ciliary causes  of  disease  are  terrestrial  emanations,  meteoric 
changes,  and  the  influence  of  those  matters,  which,  having 
been  cast  out  from  the  dwelling,  are  suffered  to  undergo 
decomposition  in  its  vicinity. 

To  me  has  been  assigned  the  duty  of  reporting  upon 
"the  importance  of  an  ample  supply  of  water,  an  edequate 
sewerage,  and  the  proper  disposal  of  offal." 

The  first  of  these  objects  of  inquiry — water — belongs  to 
both  classes  of  circumstances,  i.  e.,  the  internal  and  external 
domiciliary.  Used  as  a  beverage,  for  cooking,  for  bathing,  for 
washing,  and  cleansing  generally,  it  pertains  to  the  internal 
affairs  of  the  household  ;  as  a  means  of  cooling  the  atmos- 
phere, of  absorbing  free  gases,  of  cleansing  the  ways,  and 
of  removing  filth,  its  applications  are  chiefly  external,  and 
in  this  direction,  though  more  extensive  as  regards  area, 
they  are  less  important  than  in  their  indoor  relations. 

Of  the  vast  importance  of  an  ample  supply  of  water  for 
family  use,  an  impression  may  perhaps  be  best  formed  by  ima- 
gining the  horrors  of  a  drought,  in  contrast  with  the  comforts 
of  an  abundance  of  this  element  furnished  unstintedly  ;  and 


238 

the  measure  of  the  comfort  and  health  of  a  people,  or  even 
of  a  single  household,  may  be  judged  by  the  approach  to 
one  or  the  other  of  these  extremes,  of  the  water  afforded 
to,  and  used  by  them.  There  is  nothing  extravagant  in  the 
conjecture,  that,  in  many  of  the  very  crowded  portions  of 
cities,  where  dwellings  rise  to  the  height  of  five  or  six  stories, 
up  to  which  it  is  impossible,  by  hand  labor,  to  carry  an 
ample  supply  of  water,  that  there,  suffering  and  sickness 
from  the  deficiency,  are  marked  and  decided,  while  nearer 
the  ground,  the  inhabitants,  being  better  able  to  observe 
rules  of  cleanliness,  and  to  use  it  more  freely  in  every  way, 
are  on  this  account  less  prone  to  evils  of  many  kinds. 

Water  should  be  second  only  to  air  in  abundance  and 
accessibility ;  as  the  poorest  has  no  excuse  for  self-privation 
of  air,  nature  pressing  it  upon  him  with  the  force  of  fifteen 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  and  he  having  only  to  expand 
his  chest  to  receive  it,  so  should  water  be  accessible  to  every 
one,  the  poorest  more  especially,  simply  by  the  opening  of 
a  valve,  that  there  might  be  no  excuse  for  its  neglect. 
Stephen  Girard  and  John  Jacob  Astor  could  have  made  no 
better  disposition  of  their  wealth,  than  to  have  given  the 
waters  of  the  Schuylkill  and  the  Croton  to  their  fellow- 
citizens  without  price. 

Passing  to  the  subject  of  sewerage,  we  have  to  observe  that 
terrene  exhalations  in  rural  localities  are  a  well-known  cause 
of  various  diseases,  which  need  not  be  here  enumerated. 
From  this  cause  every  city  should  and  can  be,  made  almost 
wholly  free.  However  vicious  may  be  the  soil  upon  which  a 
city  stands,  a  thorough  system  of  paving  and  sewerage  will 
prevent  the  natural  exhalations,  and  obviate  the  diseases 
which  will  otherwise  flow  from  them.  But  however  well  paved 
and  sewered  a  city  may  be,  whereby  its  natural  exhalations 
are  obviated,  the  formation  of  artificial  marshes  above 
the  stones  of  the  pavement,  and  beyond  the  reach  of  the 


239 

sewers,  by  the  accumulation  of  the  offal  of  men  and  ani- 
mals is  equally  bad,  if  not  worse.  The  marsh  miasm  of  new 
countries  which  produces  intermittent,  remittent,  and 
bilious  fevers,  the  scourges  of  uncultivated  regions,  is  the 
result  of  vegetable  decomposition  only  ;  but  if  to  this  there 
be  added  a  large  proportion  of  animal  matter,  and  the  ex-* 
halations  of  the  combined  decomposition  are  suffered  to  in- 
vade our  dwellings  and  surround  us  continually,  the  intensity 
of  the  malarious  poison  is  redoubled,  and  in  addition  to  the 
diseases  just  mentioned,  we  have  Diarrhoea,  Dysentery, 
Cholera,  Typhus  Fever,  and  a  general  depression  of  the 
vital  powers,  which  renders  every  other  disorder  more 
dangerous.  Of  such  a  character  is  the.  miasm  of  a  city  of 
uncleaned  and  unwashed  streets,  where  the  debris  of  the 
kitchens  and  manufactories  are  allowed  to  accumulate  on 
the  surface,  exposed  to  the  decomposing  influences  of  the 
air,  the  sun,  and  the  rains,  and  where  the  fecal  emanations 
of  the  inhabitants  are  preserved  in  sinks  and  cess-pools. 

If  even  the  tidal  waters  of  such  a  magnificent  sewer  as 
the  river  Thames  are  insufficient  to  relieve  the  city  of  Lon- 
don of  the  pernicious  effects  of  its  vast  amount  of  animal  and 
vegetable  debris  and  exhalation,  how  clean  soever  its  surface 
may  be  kept,  how  much  more  offensive  and  deleterious 
must  be  the  compound  animal  and  vegetable  malaria  from 
these  same  materials,  stagnant  upon  the  surface.  They 
fo^rn  artificial  marshes  more  dangerous  than  the  Pontine. 

"  The  sewerage  of  large  towns  and  cities  consists  of  refuse 
animal  matters,  of  the  excrementitial  discharges  of  the  in- 
habitants and  myriads  of  the  lower  animals,  of  the  blood 
and  animal  fluids  from  slaughter-houses,  knackers'  yards, 
and  tan-pits,  of  the  foul  and  contaminated  waters  from 
gas-works,  factories,  and  other  establishments,  and  of  refuse 
vegetable  matters  in  a  state  of  decomposition  from  public 


240 

markets  and  other  places."*  The  combined  amount  of  these 
matters  is  estimated  at  seven  cubic  feet  (about  fifty  gal- 
lons) per  diem,  for  each  individual,  which  for  the  city  of 
New  York,  with  a  population  of  700,000,  rises  to  the  daily 
average  of  35,000,000  gallons,  and,  annually,  to  the  as- 
tounding quantity  of  twelve  billions  seven  hundred  and 
seventy-five  millions  of  gallons  (12,775,000,000). 

To  descant  upon  the  necessity  of  the  immediate  and 
thorough  removal  of  this  prodigious  mass  of  waste  ani- 
mal, vegetable,  mineral,  and  gaseous  matter,  which,  were 
it  possible  to  concentrate  it  daily,  in  separate  deposits, 
would  require  for  each  day,  a  reservoir  fifty  per  cent,  larger 
than  the  Croton  distributing  reservoir  on  Murray  Hill,  New 
York  City  ;  to  descant  upon  the  absolute  necessity  of  an 
immediate  removal  of  these  immense  masses  of  poisonous 
matter  far  away  from  the  precincts  of  human  lungs;  to 
discuss  the  fearful  results  which  would  follow  their  reten- 
tion— would  seem  to  be  a  work  of  supererogation ;  and  yet 
we  find  even  intelligent  citizens  and  legislators,  almost 
everywhere,  doubting,  hesitating,  and  procrastinating. 

To  all  such  we  commend  earnestly,  and  in  the  pure 
spirit  of  patriotism,  the  following  passages  from  the  recent 
able  work  on  Hygiene,  before  quoted.  The  remarks  there 
made,  though  written  for  the  metropolis  of  Great  Britain, 
are  equally  applicable  to  New  York,  Philadelphia,  or  any 
other  large  and  crowded  city. 

"In  all  large  cities  and  towns  there  are  plague-spots 
where  fever  of  the  intermittent,  remittent,  or  continued  form 
always  prevails  in  greater  or  less  intensity.  There  are  dis- 
tricts and  localties  in  our  modern  Babylon  which  are  ever  re- 
mitting the  poison  which  generates  Typhus  Fever  ;  there 

0  Hygiene,  by  Dr.  Pickford. 


241 

are  certain  squares  and  streets,  nay,  particular  houses, 
the  inmates  of  which,  family  after  family,  for  a  long  series 
of  years  have  been  the  victims  of  Typhus  Fever,  though 
the  districts  in  which  they  are  situated  are  airy,  and  the  soil 

dry. 

"  Open  and  imperfect  sewers,  faulty,  superficial,  choked 
up  and  overflowing  drains,  imperfect  traps  of  cess-pools  and 
water-closets,  a  filthy  condition  of  the  earth's  surface,  toge- 
ther with  intramural  burying-grounds,  slaughter-houses, 
and  slaughtering-cellars,  and  the  conversion  of  tidal  rivers 
into  cloacae  maximae,  are  the  fruitful  sources  of  fevers, 
diarrhoea,  and  dysentery,  in  all  congregations,  and  on  any 
one  spot,  of  great  multitudes  of  human  beings. 

"  There  is  probably  no  subject  so  complex,  so  incalculably 
difficult  to  grapple  with,  especially  if  it  be  how  to  apply  a 
remedy,  as  the  drainage  and  sewerage  of  large  overgrown 
cities.  Yet,  we  must  perceive,  that  unless  this  be  efficiently 
done,  an  ultimate  limit  is  set  by  the  hand  of  man  himself  to  dynas- 
ties, to  peoples,  and  to  nations.  The  air  we  breathe,  loaded 
with  carbonaceous  matter,  sulphurous  and  sulphuric  acid, 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  and  sulphurretted  hydrogen,  is  de- 
prived, by  the  absence  of  vegetation,  of  the  revivifying  prin- 
ciple, oxygen,  and  is  hence  less  fitted  for  the  necessary  changes 
of  the  blood  effected  during  respiration.  The  earth  which  we 
tread  under  our  feet,  loaded  with  the  ashes  of  our  forefathers, 
and  rich  with  the  remains  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter  of 
ages  long  gone  by,  saturated  with  the  putrefying  contents  of 
myriads  of  cess-pools  and  leaking  sewers  of  our  own  day, 
emits  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  the  poisonous  emanations 
which  generate  Typhus,  Diarrhoea,  Dysentery,  and  Cholera ; 
whilst  the  waters  of  our  principal  tidal  rivers,  converted 
into  open  common  sewers,  teem  with  pestiferous  exhala- 
1G 


242 

tions,  charged  with  the  germ  of  disease,  or  the  messenger  of 
death,  If,  under  these  favoring  conditions,  a  pestilential  epi- 
demic invade  our  shores,  it  finds  us  an  unprepared  and  easy 
prey. 

"  The  government  of  every  state  and  nation  would  do 
wisely  to  appoint  a  minister  of  public  health,  whose  duty 
it  should  be  to  superintend  and  watch  over  the  health  of 
the  community  at  large,  to  see  that  due  ventilation  is  ob- 
served in  all  large  and  public  buildings,  and  in  the  dwellings 
of  the  poor ;  to  ascertain  that  the  water  is  pure,  and  its 
supply  ample ;  to  prevent  all  noxious  and  unwholesome 
trades  and  manufactures  being  carried  on  within  a  given 
distance  from  towns  and  dwellings  ;  to  prohibit  intramural 
burial-grounds,  slaughter-houses,  and  slaughtering-cellars  ; 
but,  above  all,  to  lay  down,  and  carry  out  an  effectual,  effi- 
cient, complete,  and  common-sense  plan  of  drainage  and 
sewerage  for  every  town  and  city. 

"Were  the  fearful  consequences  which  result  from  the 
reprehensible  practice  of  converting  our  rivers  into  open 
common  sewers  but  thoroughly  understood,  and  properly 
understood,  arid  properly  estimated  by  the  public,  no  ex- 
penditure of  time  or  money  would  be  deemed  too  great  to 
put  an  end,  by  penal  enactment,  to  a  system  so  disgusting,  so 
revolting,  and  so  destructive  to  the  health  and  lives  of  the 
community  at  large  ;  but  more  especially  of  those  whose 
avocations  necessitate  their  daily  and  hourly  exposure  to, 
and  residence  in  the  midst  of  its  pernicious  influence. 

"  Unless  this  montrous  and  suicidal  evil  be  staid,  London 
will  ultimately  become  the  hot-bed  of  plague  and  pestilence, 
and  will,  as  a  consequence,  be  depopulated  and  deserted,  and 
numbered  with  the  cities  of  the  world  which  have  been. 
Then,  perhaps,  may  be  fulfilled  the  prophetic  visions  of  Vol- 
ney,  of  Walpole,  of  Shelley,  of  Macaulay:  *  when  London  shall 
be  an  habitation  of  bitterns ;  when  St.  Paul's  and  Westminster 


243 

Abbey  shall  stand  shapeless  and  nameless  ruins,  in  the  midst  of 
an  unpeopled  marsh;  when  the  piers  of  Westminster  Bridge 
shall  become  the  nuclei  of  islets  of  reeds  and  osiers,  and  cast 
the  shadows  of  their  broken  arches  on  the  solitary  stream  ;' 
or  with  Macaulay : '  when  travelers  from  distant  regions  shall 
in  vain  labor  to  decipher  on  some  mouldering  pedestal  the 
name  of  our  proudest  chief;  shall  hear  savage  hymns  chanted 
to  some  misshapen  idol  over  the  ruined  dome  of  our  proudest 
temple,  and  shall  see  a  single  naked  fishermaij  wash  his 
nets  in  the  river  of  the  ten  thousand  masts.'  " 


This  book  is  due  on  last  date  given  below.     A  fine  of 
5c  will  be  charged  for  each  day  the  book  u  kept  overtime. 

Date  Due 


L.  B.  CAT.  NO.  1197 


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